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MODERN  PIANO  TUNING 

AND 

ALLIED  ARTS 

INCLUDING 

Principles  and  Practice  of  Piano  Tuning,  Regulation  of 
Piano  Action,  Repair  of  the  Piano,  Elementary  Princi- 
ples of  Player-Piano  Pneumatics,  General  Construction 
of  Player  Mechanism,  and  Repair  of  Player  Mechanism 


BY 

WILLIAM  BRAID  WHITE 

Technical    Editor   of  the   Music    Trade   Review.   New   York. 
Author  of  "Theory  and  Practice  of  Pianoforte  Build- 
ing."  "The   Player-Piano   Up-to-date," 
and  other  works 


WITH  DRAWINGS.  DIAGRAMS. 
TA^ES.  NOTES  AND  AN  INDEX 


NEW  YORK 
EDWARD  LYMAN  BILL,  Incorporated 

1917 


Copyright,  1917,  by 
EDWARD  LYMAN  BILL,  Incorporated 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall 


Murta 

LfbrBxy 


TO 
THE  CONFERENCE  OF 

AMERICAN  PIANO  TECHNICIANS 

MEETING  IN  CHICAGO,  U.  S.  A. 

Whose  valuable  and  exhaustive  discussions 

mark  an  epoch  in  the  development  of 

American  musical  technology. 

This  Book 
is,  by  one  who  has  the  honor  of 
membership  in  that  Conference, 

RESPECTFULLY  AND  AFFECTIONATELY 
DEDICATED 


'f^. 


PREFATORY  NOTE 

In  writing  this  book,  I  have  tried  to  do  two 
things  which  are  always  thought  to  be  admirable 
but  seldom  thought  to  be  conjunctible.  I  have 
tried  to  set  forth  the  theory  of  Equal  Tempera- 
ment in  a  manner  at  once  correct  and  simple. 
Simultaneously  I  have  tried  to  construct  and  ex- 
pound a  method  for  the  practical  application  of 
that  theory  in  practical  tuning,  equally  correct, 
equally  simple  and  yet  thoroughly  practical. 

The  construction  of  the  piano  has  not  in  this 
volume  been  treated  with  minuteness  of  detail, 
for  this  task  I  have  already  been  able  to  perform 
in  a  former  treatise ;  but  in  respect  of  the  sound- 
board, the  strings,  the  hammers  and  the  action, 
the  subject-matter  has  been  set  forth  quite 
elaborately,  and  some  novel  hypotheses  have  been 
advanced,  based  on  mature  study,  research  and 
experience.  Here  also,  however,  the  theoretical 
has  been  justified  by  the  practical,  and  in  no  sense 
have  I  yielded  to  the  temptation  to  square  facts 
to  theories, 

111 


iv  Prefatory  Note 

In  the  practical  matters  of  piano  and  player 
repairing,  I  have  presented  in  these  pages  the 
results  of  nineteen  years'  practical  and  theoreti- 
cal work,  undertaken  under  a  variety  of  condi- 
tions and  circumstances.  In  writing  this  part 
of  the  volume  I  have  had  the  inestimable  advan- 
tage of  the  suggestions  and  experiences  of  many 
of  the  best  American  tuners,  as  these  have  been 
gathered  from  past  numbers  of  the  Music  Trade 
Review,  the  Technical  Department  of  which  pa- 
per I  have  had  the  honor  to  edit  and  conduct, 
without  intermission,  for  fourteen  years. 

The  preliminary  treatment  of  the  Acoustical 
basis  of  piano  tuning  may  seem  elaborate;  but  I 
have  tried  to  handle  the  subject-matter  not  only 
accurately  but  also  simply;  and  as  briefly  as  its 
nature  permits.  The  need  for  really  accurate  in- 
formation here  justifies  whatever  elaboration  of 
treatment  has  been  given. 

I  desire  here  to  express  my  thanks  to  Mr.  J.  C. 
Miller  for  permission  to  utilize  some  of  his 
valuable  calculations,  to  Mr.  Arthur  Lund,  E.  E., 
for  drawings  of  acoustical  curves,  and  to  my 
brother,  Mr.  H.  Sidney  White,  M.  E.,  for  dia- 
grams of  mechanical  details. 

Most  books  intended  for  the  instruction  and 


Prefatory  Note  v 

guidance  of  piano  tuners  have  been  either  so 
theoretical  that  their  interest  is  academic  purely; 
or  so  superficial  that  accuracy  in  them  is  through- 
out sacrificed.  I  have  tried  to  avoid  both  er- 
rors, and  to  provide  both  a  scientifically  correct 
text-book  for  teaching  and  a  pocket  guide  for 
the  daily  study  and  use  of  the  working  tuner. 
The  program  has  been  ambitious ;  and  I  am  con- 
scious, now  that  the  task  is  finished,  how  far 
short  of  perfection  it  falls.  But  I  think  it  fills 
a  want ;  and  I  ask  of  all  practitioners  and  students 
of  the  noble  art  of  tuning  their  indulgence  to- 
wards its  faults  and  their  approval  of  any  vir- 
tues it  may  appear  to  them  to  possess. 

The  writing  of  the  volume  began  in  the  winter 
of  1914  and  was  completed  during  the  spring 
of  1915.  Various  causes  have  operated,  how- 
ever, to  retard  its  publication;  notably  the  sud- 
den passing  of  the  honored  man  whose  en- 
couragement and  kindness  made  possible  the 
publication  of  the  other  books  which  have  ap- 
peared over  my  name.  It  is  however  fortunate 
that  the  successor  of  Colonel  Bill,  the  corporation 
which  now  bears  his  name  and  is  carrying  on  so 
successfully  his  fine  work,  has  been  equally  de- 
sirous with  me,  of  pushing  the  book  to  publica- 


vi  Prefatory  'Note 

tion.  A  thorough  rereading  of  the  manuscript, 
however,  during  the  interim,  has  suggested  many 
slight  changes  and  a  number  of  explanatory  notes, 
which  have  been  incorporated  with,  or  appended 
to,  the  text. 

A  new,  and  I  hope  valuable,  feature  is  the  In- 
dex, which  I  have  tried  to  make  copious  and  use- 
ful, to  the  student  and  to  the  tuner  alike. 

William  Braid  White. 
Chicago,  1917. 


ERRATUM 

Pade  300.    For  ^Sectional  View  of  Doutle-valve 
Action  '  read   ^Sectional  View   oi   Smgle-valve 

Action. 

OMIT   tke   following   words: 

5a  Secondary   Poucli.  r\        V 

7a  Secondary  Reduced  Pressure  Chamber. 

8a  Secondary    Valve. 

11  Primary-Secondary  Channel. 


Contents 


PAGE 

Prefatory   Note iii 

Chapter         I.    Mechanics    of    the    Musical 

Scale       ....'..  1 

On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano 

String 36 

Temperament       ....  72 


Chapter       II. 


Chapter 
Chapter 


III. 
IV. 


Chapter        V. 


Practical   Tuning  in  Equal 
Temperament    ....     95 

Mechanical     Technique     of 
Tuning 114 


Chapter 

VI. 

The  Modern  Piano    . 

130 

Chapter 

VII. 

Sound-Board    and    Strings 

152 

Chapter  VIII. 

The  Action  and  Its  Regula- 
tion     

184 

Chapter 

IX. 

The  Hammer  and  Its  Rela- 
tion to  Tone     .... 

223 

Chapter 

X. 

Repair  of  the  Piano  . 

244 

Chapter 

XI. 

Elementary   Pneumatics 

261 

Contents 

PAGE 

Chapter    XII.     General      Construction      of 

Player  Mechanisms    .      .  284 

Chapter  XIII.    Eepair     of     Player    Mech- 
anism       310 

Bibliographical  Note 329 

Index 331 


Chapter  I. 

MECHANICS    OF    THE    MUSICAL.    SCALE. 

He  who  undertakes  to  master  the  art  of  piano 
tuning  must  have  some  acquaintance,  exact  rather 
than  comprehensive,  with  that  general  body  of 
knowledge  known  as  Acoustics.  This  term  is  used 
to  designate  the  Science  of  the  phenomena  known 
as  Sound.  In  other  words,  by  the  term  Acoustics 
we  mean  the  body  of  facts,  laws  and  rules  which 
has  been  brought  together  by  those  who  have  sys- 
tematically observed  Sound  and  have  collected 
their  observations  in  some  intelligible  form. 
Piano  Tuning  itself,  as  an  Art,  is  merely  one  of 
the  branches  of  Practical  Acoustics ;  and  in  order 
that  the  Branch  should  be  understood  it  is  neces- 
sary to  understand  also  the  Trunk,  and  even  the 
Root. 

But  I  might  as  well  begin  by  saying  that  no- 
body need  be  frightened  by  the  above  paragraph. 
I  am  not  proposing  to  make  any  excursions  into 
realms  of  thought  too  rarefied  for  the  capacity  of 

the  man  who  is  likely  to  read  this  book.    I  sim- 

1 


2  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

ply  ask  that  man  to  take  my  word  for  it  that  I 
am  going  to  be  perfectly  practical  and  intelligible, 
and  in  fact  shall  probably  make  him  conclude  that 
he  has  all  along  been  a  theorist  without  knowing 
it;  just  as  Moliere's  M.  Jourdain  discovered  that 
he  had  been  speaking  prose  all  his  life  without 
knowing  it.  The  only  difference  has  been  that 
my  reader  has  not  called  it  "theory."  He  has 
called  it  ''knowing  the  business." 

Anyhow,  we  are  going  to  begin  by  discovering 
something  about  Sound.  We  are  in  fact  to  make 
a  little  excursion  into  the  delectable  kingdom  of 
Acoustics. 

What  is  Sound?  When  a  street-car  runs  over 
a  crossing  where  another  line  intersects,  we  are 
conscious  of  a  series  of  grinding  crashes  exceed- 
ingly unpleasant  to  hear,  which  we  attribute  per- 
haps to  flat  tires  on  the  wheels  or  to  uneven  lay- 
ing of  the  intersecting  trackage.  The  most 
prominent  feature  of  such  a  series  of  noises  is 
their  peculiarly  grating  and  peculiarly  spasmodic 
character.  They  are  on  the  one  hand  discontinu- 
ous, choppy  and  fragmentary,  and  on  the  other 
hand,  grating,  unpleasant  to  the  hearing,  and  to- 
tally lacking  in  any  but  an  irritant  effect.  These 
are  the  sort  of  sounds  we  speak  of  as  ''noise." 


Mechanics  of  the  Musical  Scale.  3 

In  fact,  lack  of  continuity,  grating  effect  and  gen- 
eral fragmentariness  are  the  distinguishing  fea- 
tures of  noises,  as  distinguished  from  other 
sounds. 

If  now  we  listen  to  a  orchestra  tuning  up 
roughly  off-stage,  the  extraordinary  medley  of 
sounds  which  results,  may — and  frequently  does — 
have  the  effect  of  one  great  noise;  although  we 
know  that  each  of  the  single  sounds  in  the  up- 
roar is,  by  itself,  musical.  So  it  appears  that 
noises  may  be  the  result  of  the  chance  mixture 
of  many  sounds  not  in  themselves  noises,  but 
which  may  happen  to  be  thrown  together  without 
system  or  order.  Lack  of  order,  in  fact,  marks 
the  first  great  distinction  between  noises  and  other 
sounds. 

If  now  we  listen  to  the  deep  tone  of  a  steamer's 
siren,  or  of  a  locomotive  whistle,  we  are  conscious 
of  a  different  kind  of  sound.  Here  is  the  im- 
mediate impression  of  something  definite  and  con- 
tinuous, something  that  has  a  form  and  shape  of 
its  own,  as  it  were,  and  that  holds  the  same  form 
so  long  as  its  manifestation  persists.  If,  in  fact, 
we  continue  to  seek  such  sounds,  we  shall  find  that 
what  are  called  Musical  Sounds  are  simply  more 
perfect  examples  of  the  continuity,  the  order  and 


4  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

the  definite  character  which  we  noticed  in  the  lo- 
comotive whistle's  sound.  The  more  highly  per- 
fected the  musical  instrument,  the  more  perfectly 
will  the  sounds  evoked  by  it  possess  the  qualities 
of  continuity,  order  and  definite  form. 

Continuity,  persistence  and  definiteness,  then, 
are  the  features  which  distinguish  Musical  Sounds^ 
from  Noises.  And  there  are  therefore  only  two 
kinds  of  sounds:  musical  sounds  and  noises. 

Now,  what  is  Sound?  The  one  way  in  which 
we  can  know  it,  plainly,  is  by  becoming  conscious 
of  what  we  call  the  Sensation  of  Sound;  that  is, 
by  hearing  it.  If  one  considers  the  matter  it  be- 
comes plain  that  without  the  ability  to  hear  there 
would  be  no  Sound  in  the  world.  Sound  cannot 
exist  except  in  so  far  as  there  previously  exist 
capacities  for  hearing  it.  The  conditions  that 
produce  Sound  are  obviously  possible,  as  we  shall 
soon  see,  to  an  interminable  extent  in  all  direc- 
tions ;  yet  what  we  may  call  the  range  of  audible 
Sound  is  very  small  indeed.  We  can  hear  so  very 
little  of  the  conceivably  bearable  material;  if  I 
may  use  so  rough  an  expression. 

So  it  becomes  quite  plain  that  Sound  cannot  be 
considered  as  something  in  itself,  existing  in  the 
sounding  body  apart  from  us,  but  must  rather  be 


Mechanics  of  the  Musical  Scale.  5 

thought  of  as  the  form  in  which  we  perceive  some- 
thing ;  the  form,  in  fact,  in  which  we  perceive  the 
behavior  of  certain  bodies,  which  behavior  could 
not  be  perceived  in  any  other  way.  Soun(i  then 
can  be  considered  only  from  the  view-point  pf  the 
physical  laws  which  govern  the  behavior  of  the 
bodies  in  question.  The  laws  which  govern  that 
sort  of  behavior  which  we  perceive  as  Sound, 
alone  form  the  subject  of  Acoustics.  Why  we 
should  experience  these  perceptio||^  as  Sound 
rather  than  as  Light  or  Heat  is  m>t  a,  question 
to  be  decided  by/ Acoustics ;  is  nof  a  j^oblem  of 
the  natural  sciences,  but  of  Metaphysics. 

Limited  th^efore  to  a  strictly  mechanical  in- 
vestigation, let  us  consider  the  production  of 
Sound  from  this  view-gpf6int.  Suppose  that  I 
strike  a  tuning-fork  aga*nst  the  knee  and  hold  it 
to  the  ear.  I  am  conscious  of  a  sound  only  mod- 
erate in  intensity  but  of  persistent  and  quite  defi- 
nite character,  agreeable,  and  what  we  call  **  musi- 
cal." No  one  has  any  hesitation  in  calling  this 
a  "musical  sound."  But  what  produces  it,  physi- 
cally speaking?  We  can  discover  this  for  our- 
selves by  making  a  simple  experiment. 

By  lightly  touching  the  prongs  of  the  fork  while 
it  is  sounding  I  discover  them  to  be  in  a  state  of 


6  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

vibration.  If  I  examine  them  under  a  micro- 
scope I  shall  perhaps  be  able  to  detect  an  exceed- 
ingly rapid  vibratory  motion.  In  order  however 
to  make  sure  of  the  existence  of  these  unseen  vi- 
brations, it  is  only  necessary  to  obtain  a  sheet  of 
glass  and  smoke  one  surface  of  it  by  passing  it 
over  the  flame  of  a  candle.  Then  let  a  tuning 
fork  be  fitted  with  a  very  light  needle  point  stuck 
on  the  end  of  one  prong  with  a  bit  of  wax,  in  such 


Figure  1. 


a  position  that  if  the  sheet  of  glass  be  placed 
parallel  with  the  length  of  the  fork,  the  needle 
point  will  be  at  right  angles  to  both. 

Now  set  the  fork  to  sounding,  and  hold  it  so 
that  the  needle  point  lightly  touches  the  smoked 
surface.  Have  a  second  person  then  move  the 
sheet  of  glass  lengthwise  while  the  fork  is  held 
still.  At  once  the  needle-point  will  trace  out  a 
continuous  wavy  line,  each  wave  being  of  that  pe- 
culiar symmetrical  form  known  technically  as  a 


Mechanics  of  the  Musical  Scale.  7 

curve  of  sines  or  sinusoidal  curve.  By  adjusting 
the  experimental  apparatus  with  sufficient  exact- 
ness it  would  be  possible  to  find  out  how  many 
of  these  little  waves  are  being  traced  out  in  any 
given  time.  Each  of  these  waves  corresponds  to 
one  vibration  or  pendulum-like  back  and  forth  mo- 
tion of  the  fork.  By  examining  the  wavy  line  with 
close  attention,  we  shall  see  that  if  the  motion  of 
the  glass  sheet  has  been  uniform,  each  sinusoid 
is  identical  in  size  with  all  the  others,  which  in- 
dicates that  the  vibrations  are  periodic,  that  is  to 
say,  recur  at  regular  intervals  and  are  of  similar 
width  or  amplitude. 

We  may  therefore  conclude  from  this  one  ex- 
periment that  the  physical  producer  of  musical 
sound  is  the  excitation  of  the  sounding  body  into 
periodic  vibrations. 

Listen  to  the  noise  of  the  macliinery  in  a  saw 
mill.  When  the  circular  saw  starts  to  bite  at  a 
piece  of  wood  you  hear  a  series  of  grating  cracks, 
which  almost  instantly  assume  the  character  of  a 
complete  definite  musical  sound,  though  rough  in 
character.  As  the  saw  bites  deeper  into  the  wood 
the  sound  becomes  first  lower,  then  higher,  until 
it  mounts  into  a  regular  song.  As  the  saw  comes 
out  through  the  wood  the  sounds  mount  quite  high 


8  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

and  then  instantly  die  away.    What  is  the  cause 
of  this  phenomenon? 

The  circular  saw  is  a  steel  wheel  with  a  large 
number  of  teeth  cut  in  its  circumference.  Sup- 
pose there  are  fifty  such  teeth.  At  each  revolu- 
tion of  the  wheel,  then,  each  tooth  will  bite  the 
wood  once.  If  the  wheel  revolves  at  the  rate  of 
say  four  revolutions  per  second,  it  follows  that 
there  will  be  four  times  fifty  or  two  hundred  bites 
at  the  wood  in  this  time.  That  means  that  the 
wood  will  receive  two  hundred  separate  scrapes 
per  second.  Hence,  the  rotation  of  the  wheel  will 
be  slightly  interrupted  that  number  of  times  in 
one  second.  Hence,  again,  the  surface  of  the  air 
around  the  wheel  will  be  vibrated  back  and  forth 
just  as  many  times,  because  the  entry  and  emer- 
gence of  each  tooth  will  cause  an  alternate  com- 
pression and  suction  on  the  air  around  it.  Try 
another  experiment.  Stand  five  boys  up  in  a  row 
one  behind  the  other,  so  that  each  boy  has  his  out- 
stretched hands  upon  the  shoulders  of  the  boy  in 
front  of  him.  Push  the  last  boy.  He  falls  for- 
ward, pushes  the  next  and  regains  his  position. 
Next  falls  forward,  pushes  Third  and  regains  his 
position.  Third  falls  forward,  pushes  Fourth  and 
regains     his     position.     Fourth     falls     forward, 


Mechanics  of  the  Musical  Scale.  9 

pushes  Fifth  and  regains  his  position.  Fifth  has 
no  one  in  front  of  him  and  so  falls  forward  with- 
out being  able  to  regain  his  position.  In  this  way 
we  illustrate  the  compression  and  rarefaction  of 
the  air  by  the  alternate  fallings  forward  and  re- 
gainings of  position  undertaken  by  the  boys.  The 
air  is  even  more  elastic  than  the  boys  and  so  forms 
these  waves  of  motion  which  we  saw  traced  out 
by  the  stylus  on  the  tuning  fork. 

Now,  it  is  plain  that  as  the  rotation  of  the  cir- 
cular saw  increases  in  speed  the  pulses  become  suf- 
ficiently rapid  to  fuse  into  one  continuous  musical 
sound.  If  the  saw  were  rotated  at  irregular,  con- 
stantly shifting  speed,  the  separate  shocks  would 
not  coalesce  and  we  should  have  merely  the  sen- 
sation of  a  discontinuous,  fragmentary,  grating 
series  of  shocks  which  we  should  call  a  noise. 
Thus  again  we  see  that  regularly  recurring  mo- 
tions of  the  sounding  body  are  requisite  to  pro- 
duce musical  sounds. 

Transmission  of  Sound.  But  the  illustration  of 
the  five  boys  (which  is  due  to  the  late  Professor 
Tyndall,  by  the  way)  shows  something  further. 
It  shows  first  how  the  excitation  of  a  body  into 
vibration  at  regular  intervals  produces  an  effect 
upon  the  immediately  surrounding  air,  causing  it 


10 


Modern  Piano  Timing. 


in  turn  to  oscillate  back  and  forth  in  pulses  of 
alternate  compression  and  rarefaction.  But  it 
shows  more.  It  shows  that  the  sound-motion,  as 
we  may  call  it,  is  transmitted  any  distance  through 
the  air  just  as  the  shock  started  at  one  end  of 
the  row  of  boys  is  felt  at  the  other  end,  although 
each  boy  moves  only  a  little  and  at  once  recovers 


Figure  2. 

his  position.  So  also  each  particle  of  air 
merely  receives  its  little  push  or  compres- 
sion from  the  one  motion  of  the  tuning-fork 
or  string,  and  transmits  this  to  the  next  one. 
At  the  backward  swing  of  the  tuning-fork  or  string 
the  air  particle  drops  back  to  fill  up  the  partial 
vacuum  it  left  in  its  forward  motion,  whilst  the 
motion  transmitted  to  the  second  particle  goes  on 
to  the  third  and  to  the  fourth  and  so  on  to  the  ear 
of  the  hearer.  Yet  each  particle  has  merely  os- 
cillated slightly  back  and  forth. 
Now,  this  mode  of  transmission  evidently  de- 


Mechanics  of  the  Musical  Scale.  11 

pends  upon  the  existence  of  an  atmosphere.  In 
fact,  we  can  soon  show  that,  apart  from  all  ques- 
tion of  ears,  Sound  could  not  exist  for  us,  as  we 
are  in  this  state  of  existence,  without  an  atmos- 
phere. Let  an  alarm-clock  be  set  to  ringing  and 
then  placed  under  the  glass  bell  of  an  air-pump. 
We  now  begin  to  displace  the  air  therefrom  by 
working  the  handle  of  the  pump.  As  the  quantity 
of  air  inside  the  bell  thus  becomes  smaller  and 
smaller,  the  sound  of  the  alarm-clock's  ringing 
becomes  fainter  and  fainter,  until,  where  the  air 
is  at  a  certain  point  of  rarefaction,  it  entirely 
disappears;  although  the  clapper  of  the  alarm 
will  still  be  seen  working.  In  other  words,  there 
must  be  an  atmosphere  or  other  similar  medium, 
like  water,  for  transmission  of  the  sound-motion 
from  the  excited  body  to  the  ear. 

Properties  of  Musical  Sounds.  Having  arrived 
at  this  point,  we  are  now  in  a  position  to  discuss 
musical  sounds  in  general  and  to  discover  the 
laws  that  govern  their  behavior.  The  first  prin- 
ciple we  shall  lay  down  is  that  musical  Sounds  are 
distinguished  from  noises  by  the  continuity  of 
their  sensation ;  or  in  other  words,  musical  sounds 
are  evoked  by  periodic  vibrations.  It  is  thus  pos- 
sible to  measure  the  frequency  of  vibration  that 


12  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

evokes  a  sound  of  some  given  Leight;  in  other 
words  to  determine  its  pitch. 

It  is  also  possible,  as  we  shall  see,  to  determine 
a  second  quality  of  musical  sounds ;  namely,  their 
relative  loudness  or  softness,  or,  as  we  shall  call 
it,  their  intensity. 

Lastly,  we  can  discover  differences  in  character 
or  quality  between  musical  sounds,  and  we  shall 
see  also  that  it  is  possible  to  measure  these  dif- 
ferences accurately. 

Loudness.  Let  us  begin  with  the  second  qual- 
ity mentioned;  that  of  loudness  or  intensity.  If 
a  tuning-fork  be  excited  by  means  of  a  violin  bow 
and  then  examined  through  a  microscope  while 
its  motion  persists,  it  will  be  observed  that  as  the 
sound  dies  away,  the  amplitude  or  width  of  swing 
of  the  prongs  is  becoming  less  and  less,  until  the 
cessation  of  motion  and  of  the  sound  occur  to- 
gether. If,  whilst  the  sound  is  thus  dying  away, 
the  fork  is  again  bowed,  the  amplitude  of  the 
prong's  motion  again  is  seen  to  increase  just  as 
the  sound  increases.  In  fact,  it  has  been  found 
by  authoritative  experiments  that  not  only  does 
the  loudness  of  a  sound  vary  with  the  amplitude 
of  the  vibrations  of  the  sounding  body;  but  ex- 
actly as  the  square  of  the  amplitude.     For  in- 


Mechanics  of  the  Musical  Scale.  13 

stance,  if  a  piano  string  can  be  made  to  vibrate  so 
that  the  width  of  swing  in  its  motion  is  one-fif- 
tieth of  an  inch,  and  if  another  piano  string  giv- 
ing the  same  pitch  can  be  made  to  vibrate  with 
an  amplitude  of  one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch,  then 
the  second  will  have  an  amplitude  twice  that  of 
the  first  and  its  sound  will  be  four  times  as  loud. 

However,  let  it  be  remarked  that  the  mechanical 
operations  thus  described  do  not  necessarily  cor- 
respond with  what  we  actually  seem  to  hear.  In 
other  words,  the  sensation  of  loudness  and  the 
mechanical  cause  thereof  do  not  always  agree,  for 
the  reason  that  we  do  not  hear  some  musical 
sounds  as  well  as  others.  For  instance,  it  is  well 
known  that  low  sounds  never  seem  as  loud  as  high 
sounds,  even  though  the  amplitude  of  vibration  in 
each  case  be  the  same.  A  low  sound  always 
sounds  softer  than  it  really  should  be,  to  use  a 
rough  expression,  and  a  high  sound  louder  than 
it  really  should  be. 

There  is  only  one  more  important  point  about 
sound-intensity,  namely,  that  the  loudness  of  a 
sound  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  dis- 
tance of  the  sounding  body  from  the  hearer. 
Thus,  other  things  being  equal,  a  sound  heard  at 
a  distance  of  fifty  feet  should  be  four  times  as 


14  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

loud  as  one  heard  at  a  distance  of  twice  fifty,  or 
one  hundred  feet.  However,  it  must  also  be  re- 
membered that  the  situation  of  the  sounding  body 
and  of  the  hearer  in  proximity  to  other  objects, 
has  a  modifying  effect  upon  the  loudness  of  sound 
as  perceived.  In  fact,  we  shall  see  that  this  is 
only  part  of  the  truth  expressed  in  the  term  "res- 
onance," about  which  we  shall  have  something  to 
say  later  on. 

Pitch.  Without  making  any  special  attempt  at 
producing  an  ideal  definition  of  "pitch,"  it  will  be 
enough  to  call  it  the  relative  acuteness  or  gravity 
of  a  musical  sound.  Everybody  knows  what  is 
meant  by  saying  that  a  musical  sound  is  liigh  or 
low.  The  province  of  Acoustics  lies  in  finding 
some  measuring-rule,  some  standard,  whereby  we 
can  measure  this  lowness  or  highness  of  a  sound 
and  place  it  accurately  in  relation  to  all  others. 
The  whole  system  of  music  is  built  upon  simply 
a  measure  of  pitch,  as  we  shall  see. 

Now,  first  of  all,  let  us  find  out  what  it  is  that 
makes  a  sound  high  or  low.  In  other  words,  what 
is  the  mechanical  reason  for  a  sound  producing  a 
sensation  of  highness  or  lowness? 

Musical  sounds  are  produced  through  the  pe- 
riodic continuous  vibration  of  some  body.    In  the 


Mechanics  of  the  Musical  Scale.  15 

experiment  of  the  circular  saw,  to  which  I  di- 
rected attention  some  pages  back,  it  was  pointed 
out  that  as  the  speed  of  the  saw  increases,  so 
the  musical  sound  produced  through  its  contact 
with  the  wood  rises  in  height.  This  may  be  veri- 
fied by  any  number  of  experiments  that  one 
chooses  to  make,  and  the  net  result  is  the  fact 
that  the  pitch  of  musical  sounds  depends  upon  the 
number  of  vibrations  in  a  given  unit  of  time  per- 
formed by  the  sounding  body.  Let  us  put  it  in  a 
formula,  thus: 

The  pitch  of  a  musical  sound  varies  directly 
as  the  number  of  vibrations  per  unit  of  time  per- 
formed by  the  sounding  body:  the  greater  the 
number  of  vibrations,  the  higher  the  pitch. 

Unit  of  Time.  It  is  customary  to  assign  the 
second  as  the  unit  of  time  in  measuring  frequency 
of  vibrations,  and  in  future  we  shall  use  this  al- 
ways. If,  therefore,  we  speak  of  a  certain  pitch 
as,  say,  500,  we  shall  mean  500  vibrations  per 
second. 

Double  Vibrations.  In  counting  vibrations,  we 
understand  that  a  motion  to  and  fro  constitutes 
one  complete  vibration.  A  motion  to  or  fro  would 
be  merely  a  semi-vibration  or  oscillation.  In  the 
United  States  and  England  it  is  customary  to  im- 


16  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

ply  a  double  vibration  (to  and  fro)  when  speak- 
ing of  a  ''vibration."  In  France  the  single  or 
semi-vibration  is  the  unit  of  measurement,  so  that 
the  figures  of  pitch  are  always  just  double  what 
they  are  as  reckoned  in  the  English  or  American 
style. 

Range  of  Audibility.  It  is  found  as  the  result 
of  experiment  that  the  human  sense  of  hearing  is 
distinctly  limited.  The  lowest  tone  that  can  be 
distinctly  heard  as  a  musical  sound  is  probably  the 
lowest  A  (A-i)  of  the  piano  which,  at  the  stand- 
ard international  pitch,  has  a  frequency  of  27.1875 
vibrations  per  second.  Sounds  of  still  lower  fre- 
quency may  perhaps  be  audible,  but  this  is  doubt- 
ful, except  in  the  cases  of  persons  specially  trained 
and  with  special  facilities.  In  fact,  any  spe- 
cific musical  sounds  lower  than  this  probably  do 
not  exist  for  human  beings,  and  when  supposed  to 
be  heard,  are  in  reality  not  such  sounds  at  all,  but 
upper  partials  thereof.^  The  64-foot  organ  pipe, 
which  has  occasionally  been  used,  nominally  real- 
izes tones  lower  than  27  vibrations  per  second,  but 
these  are  certainly  not  audible  as  specific  separate 
sounds.  They  can  and  do  serve  perhaps  as  a  bass 
to  reinforce  the  upper  partials  of  the  pipe  or  the 

1  See  Chapter  II, 


Mechanics  of  the  Musical  Scale.  17 

upper  tones  of  a  chord;  but  they  do  not  appear 
as  separate  sounds,  simply  because  the  ear  does 
not  realize  their  pulses  as  a  continuous  sensation, 
but  separates  them.  In  fact,  we  may  feel  safe 
in  concluding  that  the  lowest  A  of  the  piano  is  the 
lowest  of  musical  sounds  generally  audible.  This 
statement  is  made  in  face  of  the  fact  that  the 
sound  evoked  by  the  piano  string  of  this  note  is 
usually  powerful  and  full.  This  only  means,  how- 
ever, that  the  sound  we  hear  on  the  piano  is  not 
the  pure  fundamental  vibration  of  27.1875  vibra- 
tions per  second,  but  a  mixture  of  upper  partials 
re-inforced  by  the  fundamental.  Of  these  par- 
tials we  shall  have  to  speak  later,  for  they  are  of 
vital  importance  to  the  due  consideration  of  our 
subject-matter.^ 

A  similar  limitation  confronts  us  when  we  come 
to  the  highest  tones  audible  by  the  human  ear. 
Plere  again  there  is  considerable  diversity  of 
opinion  as  well  as  of  experience.  The  highest 
note  of  the  piano,  C7,  has  a  frequency  of  4,138.44 
vibrations  per  second  at  the  international  pitch.  -.J^ 
However,  there  is  no  special  difficulty  in  hear- 

1  For  a  very  interesting  discussion  of  the  whole  question  of 
deepest  tones,  I  refer  the  reader  to  Helmholtz,  "Sensations  of 
Tone,"  third  English  edition.  Chapter  IX. 


18  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

ing  sounds  as  much  as  two  octaves  higher,  or  up 
to  16,554  vibrations  per  second.  Above  this  limit, 
comparatively  few  people  can  hear  anything,  al- 
though musicians  and  acousticians  have  been  able 
to  go  much  higher.^ 

The  Musical  Range.  The  limits  of  audibiUty 
therefore  embrace  eleven  octaves  of  sounds,  but 
the  musical  range  is  considerably  smaller.  The 
modern  piano  embraces  virtually  the  complete 
compass  of  sounds  used  in  music,  and,  as  we  all 
know,  that  range  is  seven  octaves  and  a  minor 
third,  from  A-i  to  C7. 

Let  it  be  noted  that  if  the  range  of  bearable 
sounds  lies  between,  say  27  and  32,000  vibrations 
per  second,  the  number  of  possible  distinct  musi- 
cal sounds  is  enormous.  We  know  that  it  is  quite 
possible  for  the  trained  ear  to  discriminate  be- 
tween sounds  which,  at  the  lower  end  of  the  gamut 
anyhow,  are  no  more  than  4  vibrations  per  second 
apart.  For  many  years  the  late  Dr.  Rudolph 
Koenig  of  Paris,  one  of  the  most  gifted  acousti- 

1  Many  years  ago,  before  I  had  become  practically  interested  in 
Acoustics,  and  when  my  ear  therefore  was  in  every  sense  untrained, 
I  was  tested  by  the  Galton  whistle  up  to  24,000  vibrations  per 
second,  which  is  near  G^,  two  and  one-half  octaves  above  the 
piano's  hif^hest  note.  This  is  well  up  to  the  higher  limit  of  most 
trained  ears,  although  some  acousticians  have  tuned  forks  run- 
ning up  to  Cjo,  with  33,108  vibrations  per  second. 


Mechanics  of  the  Musical  Scale.  19 

cians  the  world  has  ever  known,  was  engaged  in 
the  construction  of  a  so-called  Universal  Tono- 
meter, consisting  of  a  superb  set  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  tuning  forks,  ranging  in  frequency  from 
16  to  21,845.3  vibrations  per  second.  In  this  re- 
markable instrument  of  precision,  the  lowest 
sounds  differ  from  each  other  by  one-half  a  vi- 
bration per  second,  while  within  the  musical  com- 
pass the  difference  never  exceeds  four  vibrations. 
It  can  readily  be  seen  therefore  that  the  number 
of  possible  musical  sounds  is  very  much  greater 
than  the  eighty-eight  which  comprise  the  musical 
gamut  of  the  piano. 

Just  how  the  musical  scale,  as  we  know  it,  came 
to  be  what  it  is,  I  cannot  discuss  here;  for  the 
simple  reason  that  the  whole  question  is  really  to 
one  side  of  our  purpose.^  Whatever  may  be  the 
origin  of  musical  scales,  however,  we  know  that  the 
diatonic  scale  has  existed  since  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, although  the  foundation  of  what  we  call  mod- 
ern  music,    employing   the    chromatic   tempered 

1  The  claims  made  for  the  eleventh  century  monk,  Guide 
d'Arezzo,  have  been  disputed,  and  the  reader  who  is  interested  in 
the  historical  aspect  of  the  subject  is  referred  to  Grove's  "Dic- 
tionary of  Music  and  Musicians,"  to  Helraholtz'  "Sensations  of 
Tone,"  and  to  A.  J.  Ellis'  "History  of  Musical  Pitch,"  quoted  in 
Appendix  20  of  his  translation  of  Helmholtz   (3rd  edition). 


20  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

scale,  was  rightly  laid  only  by  Sebastian  Bach,  who 
died  1750.  Music  is  a  young,  an  infantile,  art,  as 
time  goes. 

The  Diatonic  Scale.  We  have  already  seen 
that  the  musical  tone  is  a  fixed  quantity,  as  it 
were,  being  the  sensation  that  is  produced  or 
evoked  by  a  definite  number  of  vibrations  in  a 
given  time.  This  being  the  case,  it  becomes  evi- 
dent that  all  possible  tones  must  bear  mathemati- 
cal relations  to  each  other.  As  long  ago  as  the 
sixth  century  b.  c.  the  Greek  philosopher  and 
scientific  investigator  Pythagoras  propounded  the 
notion  that  the  agreeableness  of  tones  when  used 
with  each  other  is  in  proportion  to  the  simplicity 
of  their  mathematical  relations.  Now,  if  we  look 
at  the  scale  we  use  to-day  we  find  that  although 
the  relations  of  the  successive  members  of  it 
to  each  other  appear  to  be  complex,  yet  in  fact 
these  are  really  most  simple.  Let  us  see  how 
this  is : 

Unison.  We  all  know  that  we  can  recognize  one 
single  tone  and  remember  it  when  we  hear  it  a 
second  time.  If  now  we  draw  the  same  tone  from 
two  sources  and  sound  the  two  tones  together,  we 
find  that  they  blend  perfectly  and  that  we  have 
what  we  call  a  Unison.     If  we  were  to  designate 


Mechanics  of  the  Musical  Scale.  21 

the  first  tone  by  the  mathematical  symbol  1,  we 
should  say  that  the  Unison  is  equivalent  to  the 
proportion  1 : 1.  This  is  the  simplest  of  rela- 
tions ;  but  it  is  so  because  it  is  a  relation  between 
two  of  the  same  tone,  not  between  two  different 
tones. 

Octave.  We  all  recognize  also  the  interval 
which  we  call  the  octave  and  we  know  that  in 
reality  two  sounds  an  octave  apart  are  identical, 
except  that  they  exist  on  different  planes  or  levels. 
So,  if  we  play  the  sound  C  and  then  evoke  the  C 
which  lies  an  octave  above,  we  find  that  we  have 
two  sounds  that  actually  blend  into  one  and  are 
virtually  one.  When  we  come  to  discover  the  re- 
lations between  two  sounds  at  the  octave  inter- 
val, we  find  that  the  higher  sound  is  produced  by 
just  twice  as  many  vibrations  in  a  given  time  as 
suffice  to  produce  the  lower  sound,  and  so  we  can 
express  this  octave  relation  mathematically  by  the 
symbol  1 : 2.  This  is  a  relation  really  as  simple 
as  that  of  the  Unison,  for  in  reality  the  Octave  to 
a  given  tone  is  simply  a  Unison  with  one  member 
thereof  on  a  higher  or  lower  plane. 

Perfect  Fifth.  The  relation  next  in  simplicity 
should  naturally  give  us  the  next  closest  tone-re- 
lation.    And  we  find  that  the  ear  at  once  accepts 


22  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

as  the  next  closest  relation  what  is  called  the 
Fifth.  If  one  strikes  simultaneously  the  keys 
C — G  upwards  on  the  piano  one  observes  that  they 
blend  together  almost  as  perfectly  as  the  tones 
C — C  or  G — G,  or  any  other  octave  or  unison. 
The  Interval  or  relation  thus  sounded  is  called  a 
Perfect  Fifth.  When  we  come  to  trace  up  its 
acoustical  relations  we  find  that  a  tone  a  Fifth 
above  any  other  tone  is  produced  by  just  one  and 
a  half  times  as  many  vibrations  in  a  given  time 
as  suffice  to  produce  the  lower  tone.  Thus  we  can 
place  the  mathematical  relation  of  the  interval  of 
a  Perfect  Fifth  as  1 :  IH,  or  better  still,  for  the 
sake  of  simplicity,  as  2 :  3,  which  is  the  same  thing. 
So  we  now  have  the  simplest  relation  that  can  ex- 
ist between  different  tones;  the  relation  of  the  Per- 
fect Fifth  or  2:3.  This  important  fact  will  lead 
to  essential  results,  as  we  shall  see. 

The  Natural  Scale.  This  interval,  the  Fifth, 
will  be  found  competent  to  furnish  us  with  the  en- 
tire scale  which  the  musical  feeling  and  intuition 
of  men  have  caused  them,  throughout  the  entire 
Western  World  at  least,  to  accept  as  the  basis  of 
music  and  of  musical  instruments ;  that  is  to  say, 
the  diatonic  scale.     If  we  begin  with  the  tone  C  at 


Mechanics  of  the  Musical  Scale. 


23 


any  part  of  the  compass  and  take  a  series  of  Fifths 
upwards  we  shall  arrive  at  the  following  scale : 


C       G      D 


E       B       F  sharp. 


JSl 


m 


ot 


"ST 


D  A 

Figure  3, 


B 


F SHARP 


These  tones  of  course  are  spread  over  a  compass 
of  five  octaves,  but  if  they  are  drawn  together  into 
the  compass  of  one  octave,  as  they  may  rightly  be 
drawn  (see  supra  ''The  Octave")  then  we  shall 
have  a  scale  like  this : 

C      D      E      F  sharp  GAB 

Now  the  F  sharp  in  the  present  case  is  not  ac- 
tually used,  but  instead  we  have  F  natural,  which 
in  fact  is  drawn  from  the  interval  of  a  Perfect 
Fifth  below  the  key-tone  C.  The  reason  for  this 
preference  of    F  natural  over  F  sharp  lies  in  the 


24  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

fact  that  the  diatonic  scale  is  thereby  given  a  cer- 
tain symmetry  of  sound  which  otherwise  it  would 
lack  and  because  the  work  of  practical  musical 
composition  is  advantaged  by  the  substitution/ 

The  Diatonic  Scale.  We  have  arrived  now  at 
the  Diatonic  Major  Scale  and  although  we  need 
not  here  be  concerned  with  the  origin  thereof,  we 
may  be  satisfied  to  know  that  it  appears  to  sat- 
isfy the  musical  needs  of  civilized  mankind.  Let 
us  again  examine  the  series  of  tones,  this  time 
including  the  octave  to  C,  whereby  we  in  reality 
complete  the  circle  of  Fifths,  as  it  may  be  called, 
and  return  to  the  key-tone,  for  the  octave  is  the 
same  for  musical  purposes  as  the  Unison.  We 
have  then,  counting  upwards, 

CDEFGABC 

which  we  can  readily  identify  as  the  series  of 
seven  white  keys  on  the  piano ;  with  the  eighth  fol- 
lowing and  beginning  a  new  series  or  scale.  The 
complete  diatonic  scale,  when  founded  on  the  tone 
C,  may  thus  be  seen,  merely  by  looking  at  the 
piano,  to  consist  of  a  series  of  such  scales,  seven 

1  For  a  general  discussion  of  these  reasons  consult  Goetschius' 
"Theory  and  Practice  of  Tone-Relations." 


Mechanics  of  the  Musical  Scale.  25 

in  all,  following  one  another  from  one  end  of  the 
piano  to  the  other.^ 

Relations.  Now,  if  we  go  a  step  further  and 
discover  the  relations  which  these  tones  hold  to 
each  other  mathematically,  when  brought  together 
into  one  octave,  we  find  them  to  be  as  follows,  ex- 
pressing the  lower  C  as  1  and  the  upper  C  as 
2,  and  counting  upwards  always: 

CDEFGABC 

1       9/8     5/4     4/3     3/2     5/3   ,15/8      2 

Or  in  other  words,  the  relation  C  to  D  is  the  same 
as  the  ratio  8  to  9.  The  relation  C  to  E  is  like- 
wise 4  to  5.  The  relation  C  to  F  is  3  to  4,  C  to 
G  is  2  to  3,  C  to  A  is  3  to  5,  C  to  B  is  8  to  15  and  C 
to  its  octave  is  1  to  2. 

Tones  and  Semitones.  Now  if  we  glance  at  the 
C  scale  as  shown  on  the  white  keys  of  the  piano 
we  shall  see  that  it  exhibits  some  interesting  pe- 
culiarities. Between  each  pair  of  white  keys,  such 
as  C — D  or  D — E,  is  a  black  key,  which  most  people 
know  is  called  a  sharp  or  a  flat.  But  between 
E — F  and  B — C  is  no  space  whatever,  these  pairs 
of  white  keys  being  immediately  adjacent  to  each 

1  Note,   however,  that  the  modern   piano   contains  three  tones 
lower  than  tlie  lowest  C,  making  a  minor  third  more  of  compass. 


26  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

other.  If  we  run  over  the  keys  to  sound  them  we 
shall  find  that  the  sound-interval  between  E — F 
or  B — C  can  at  once  be  heard  as  being  closer  or 
narrower,  as  it  were,  than  the  sound-interval  be- 
tween A— B  or  C— D  or  D— E,  or  F— G  or  G— A 
or  A — B.  The  longer  intervals,  between  which 
we  find  the  black  keys,  are  called  Diatonic  Whole 
Tones,  and  the  shorter  intervals  E — F  and  B — C 
are  called  Diatonic  Semitones. 

Diatonic  Relationships.  The  exact  relations 
subsisting  between  the  steps  or  degrees  of  the 
Diatonic  Scale  can  be  ascertained  by  dividing  the 
ratios  previously  had,  by  each  other,  pair  to  pair. 
Consulting  the  table  previously  given  {page  25) 
showing  the  relations  of  the  steps  to  their  key- 
tone,  we  find  that  when  the  ratios  are  divided  pair 
by  pair  we  get  the  following  relations  between 
each  pair  of  notes : 

C D....E..F G....A B..C, 

8:9         9:10    15:16     8:9         9:10  8:9       15:16 

Now  the  first  thing  that  will  be  observed  is  that 
there  are  three  intei'vals  here,  not  two.  There 
are  in  fact,  evidently  two  kinds  of  whole-step  or 
whole-tone.  For  it  is  evident  that  the  sound-dis- 
tance between  C  and  D  is  more  than  the  sound- 


■i.4  5 


Mechanics  of  the  Musical  Scale.  27 

distance  between  D  and  E.  In  actual  fact,  these 
two  whole-steps  must  be  recognized  as  distinct. 
This,  however,  brings  about  an  entirely  new  con- 
dition and  one  quite  unsuspected.  For  inasmuch 
as  the  Diatonic  Scale  must  of  course  always  re- 
tain the  same  relationships  among  its  successive 
steps,  it  is  evident  that  this  idea  of  two  ditferent 
kinds  of  whole-step  must  land  us  in  difficulties. 

The  trouble  is  that  we  cannot  always  play  in  the 
key  of  C,  by  which  I  mean  that  sometimes,  in  fact 
very  often,  we  desire  to  build  our  music  upon  Dia- 
tonic Scales  which  are  founded  upon  other  tones 
than  C.  From  the  point  of  view  towards  which  I 
am  leading — namely,  that  of  tuning — we  see  here  a 
serious  difficulty,  for  it  is  at  once  evident  that  if 
we  undertake  to  tune  a  Diatonic  Scale,  as  sug- 
gested some  time  back,  by  considering  it  as  a 
series  of  Perfect  Fifths,  we  shall  find  ourselves  in 
deep  water  as  soon  as  we  quit  the  key  of  C.  Let 
me  make  this  plainer. 

Understand  first  of  all  that  we  have  as  yet 
talked  only  of  a  scale  founded  on  C  and  therefore 
including  what  are  known  simply  as  the  white  keys 
or  natural  notes.  Suppose  we  begin  by  tuning  a 
series  of  fifths  quite  perfect  from  some  given  C, 
say  for  the  sake  of  convenience  a  C  of  which  the 


28 


Modern  Piano  Tuning. 


pitcli  is  64  vibrations  per  second.  This  is  a  little 
less  than  the  pitch  of  C  would  be  at  the  Interna- 
tional standard  but  is  more  convenient  for  pur- 
poses of  calculation. 

Then  we  should  get  a  result  like  this: 


m 


-o- 


F42.66 


C64- 


G96  DI44  AEI6 

Figure  4. 


E324  B486 


Now,  let  us  reduce  this  down  to  one  octave,  by 
transferring  the  higher  tones  down,  through  the 
simple  process  of  dividing  by  2  for  each  octave 
of  transference  down  and  multiplying  by  2  for 
each  octave  of  transference  up.  This  will  give  us 
the  folloAving  result: 


F42.66      C  64. 


G96  DI44         A  216 

Figure  5. 


E324 


^^ 

^            n          O 

< 

c 

9- 

64 

-2>             ^^.       -^            .-'"''-''' 

n73^           ro,-'^'  ''85.31'-     ^.G96            AI08     /  BI2I.5 

w\* 

.-     ^       ^-          '-'     ~ 

y 

/• 

■jf                   / 

/ 

(m                ^ 

-• 

r,^ 

M-'            iT) 

. 

jr- 

- 

tf      ^^^ 

B486 


Mechanics  of  the  Musical  Scale.  29 

Gathering  this  together,  we  have  the  following 
scale  founded  on  C  =  128,  or  in  acoustical  nota- 
tion Co  =  128.1 


Co 

D, 

Eo 

F, 

G, 

A, 

B, 

Ca 

128 

144 

162 

170.66 

192 

216 

243 

256 

Now,  suppose  we  want  to  play  a  tune  based  on 
another  key-tone  than  C.  Suppose,  for  instance, 
that  we  want  to  use  D  144  as  the  basis  of  a  scale ; 
that  is  to  say,  we  want  to  play  in  the  key  of  D, 
as  we  say.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  find  out 
whether  we  have  notes  tuned  already  which  will 
give  us  such  a  scale.  Going  on  the  same  plan  as 
the  pattern  Diatonic  Scale  of  C,  and  applying  it 
to  D,  we  find  that  we  need  the  following  notes : 

D      E      F#      G      A      B      C#      D. 

All  of  these  we  already  have  except  F#  and  C#. 
We  can  get  F#  by  tuning  a  perfect  Fifth  above  B 
243,  which  will  give  us  FjJ  364.5.     Dropping  this  an 

1  Acoustical  notation  is  as  follows:  Lowest  C  on  the  piano  is 
ca:lled  C.  The  second  C  is  C„  the  third  is  Cj,  middle  C  is  C3  and 
so  on  up  to  the  highest  note  on  the  piano,  which  is  C,.  The  notes 
between  the  various  C'a  are  called  by  the  number  of  the  C  below. 
Thus,  all  notes  in  the  middle  C  octave,  between  C,  and  C^  are 
called  D3,  E3,  F3,  etc.,  up  to  C^,  when  they  begin  again  D^,  E4, 
etc.,  up  to  C5.  This  is  the  modern  notation  and  I  shall  use  it 
exclusively. 


30  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

octave  we  have  F#  182.25.  C#  is  a  Perfect  Fifth 
above  F#  and  so  will  be  546.75,  or,  dropping  an 
octave,  273.375.  Now,  we  can  construct  a  scale  of 
D  as  follows,  beginning  with  the  D  144  that  we  al- 
ready have,  using  all  the  other  notes  already  pro- 
vided and  the  two  new  ones  besides.  That  gives 
ust 


D, 

Eo 

F#2 

G, 

A, 

B, 

C#3 

D3 

144 

162 

182.25 

192 

216 

243 

273.375 

288 

If  you  will  look  at  it  closely  you  will  see  that 
there  must  be  something  wrong.  The  distance  be- 
tween F#  and  G  seems  small,  and  so  does  the  dis- 
tance between  C#  and  D.  To  test  the  thing,  let 
us  now  construct  a  diatonic  scale  on  the  ratios  we 
know  to  be  correct  ^  and  see  what  results  we  get. 
It  works  out  as  follows : 

D2        E^     F#2        G2       A,        B,      C#3       I>3 

144  162        180  192  216  240  270  288 

Ratios 

8:9       9:10       15:16         8:9         9:10  8:9         15:16 

Now,  just  for  purposes  of  comparison,  let  us 
put  these  two  scales  together,  one  below  the  other. 
They  look  like  this : 

1  See  pa{2^e  25  et  seq. 


Mechanics  of  the  Musical  Scale.  31 

SCALE  MADE  UP  FROM  C   SCALE  AND  PEBFECT  FIFTHS  TUNED  THERE- 
FROM 


D 

E 

F# 

G 

A 

B 

c# 

D 

144 

162 

182.25 

192 

216 

243 

273.375 

288 

SCALE  MADE  UP  FROM  KNOWN   DIATONIC  RATIOS 

144    162    180  192    216    2JfO  210  288 

At  once  it  can  be  seen  that  the  F#  and  the 
C#  which  we  manufactured  by  the  perfectly 
legitimate  method  of  tuning  perfect  Fifths  from 
the  nearest  tone  available  in  the  scale  of  C,  are 
both  wrong  when  secured  in  this  way.  Also,  it 
can  be  seen  that  the  B  which  belongs  to  the  scale 
of  C  will  not  do  for  the  scale  of  D.  Not  only  is 
this  so,  but  if  the  experiment  is  made  with  other 
key-tones,  it  will  be  found  that  they  all,  except  the 
scale  of  G,  differ  somewhere  and  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  from  the  scale  of  C,  even  with  reference 
to  the  notes  which  they  have  in  common  with  C 

True  Intonation.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
no  method  of  building  up  diatonic  scales  by  tuning 
pure  intervals,  will  do  for  us  if  we  are  going  to 
use  the  same  keys  and  the  same  strings  for  all 
the  scales  we  need.  It  is  evident,  in  fact,  that  if 
we  tune  perfect  Fifths  or  any  other  intervals  from 
C  or  any  other  key- tone  and  expect  thereby  to 
gain  a  scale  that  will  be  suitably  in  tune  for  all 


32  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

keys  in  which  we  may  want  to  play,  we  shall  be 
disappointed.  Not  only  is  this  so,  but  it  must 
be  remembered  that  so  far  we  have  not  attempted 
to  consider  any  of  the  so-called  sharps  and  flats, 
except  in  the  one  case  where  we  found  two  sharps 
in  the  scale  of  D,  properly  belonging  there.  It 
turns  out,  however,  when  we  investigate  the  sub- 
ject, that  the  sharp  of  C,  when  C  is  in  the  scale  of 
C,  is  quite  a  different  thing,  for  instance- (as  to 
pitch),  from  the  C#  which  is  the  leading  tone  of 
the  scale  of  D. 

Chromatic  Semitone.  The  chromatic  semitone, 
which  found  its  way  into  the  scale  during  the 
formative  period  of  musical  art — mainly  because 
it  filled  a  want — is  found  upon  investigation  to 
bear  to  its  natural  the  ratio  ^%5  or  2%4,  according 
as  it  is  a  flat  or  a  sharp.  In  the  case  we  have  been 
considering,  then,  whilst  C#  as  the  leading  tone 
in  the  scale  of  D  has  a  pitch,  in  true  intona- 
tion, of  270,  the  C#  which  is  the  chromatic 
of  C  256  (see  previous  tables)  would  have  a  pitch 
of  256  X  ^%4  or  266.66.  Similar  differences  exist 
in  all  cases  between  chromatic  and  diatonic  semi- 
tones, thus  introducing  another  element  of  con- 
fusion and  impossibility  into  any  attempt  to  tune 
in  true  intonation. 


Mechanics  of  the  Musical  Scale.  33 

Derivation  of  chromatic  ratio.  Actually  the 
chromatic  semitone  is  the  difference  between  a  ^% 
ratio  whole  tone  or  minor  tone  as  it  is  often 
called,    and    a    diatonic    semitone ;    thus    ^%  -— 

The  Comma.  The  difference  between  the  % 
(major)  and  the  ^%  (minor)  tones  is  called  a 
comma  =  ^%o.  This  is  the  smallest  musical  in- 
terval and  is  used  of  course  only  in  acoustics. 

(%-^^%  =  «yso).^ 

Musical  Instruments  Imperfect.  The  above  dis- 
cussion, then,  leads  us  to  the  truth  that  all  musical 
instruments  which  utilize  fixed  tones  are  neces- 
sarily imperfect.  As  we  know,  the  piano,  the 
organ  and  all  keyed  instruments  are  constructed 
on  a  basis  of  seven  white  and  five  black  keys  to 
each  octave,  or  as  it  is  generally  said,  on  a  12-to- 
the-octave  basis  (13  including  the  octave  note). 
If  now  we  are  to  play,  as  we  of  course  do  play,  in 
all  keys  on  this  same  key-board,  it  is  evident  that 
we  cannot  tune  pure  diatonic  scales.  The  imper- 
fection here  uncovered  has,  of  course,  existed  ever 
since  fixed-tone  musical  instruments  came  into  be- 
ing.    The  difficulty,  which  has  always  been  recog- 

1  The  diatonic  minor  scale  is  affected  equally  by  this  ar,?iimcnt; 
but  has  not  been  mentioned  here  for  reasons  set  forth  in  Chap. 

in. 


34  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

nized  by  instrument  builders  and  musical  theorists, 
can  be  put  succinctly  as  follows : 

The  piano  and  all  keyed  instruments  are  imper- 
fect, in  that  they  must  not  be  tuned  perfectly  in 
any  one  scale  if  they  are  to  be  used  in  more  than 
that  one  scale.  Hence  a  system  of  compromise,  of 
some  sort,  must  be  the  basis  of  tuning. 

The  violins  and  violin  family,  the  slide  trombone 
and  the  human  voice  can  of  course  sound  in  pure 
intonation,  because  the  performer  can  change  the 
tuning  from  instant  to  instant  by  moving  his 
finger  on  the  string,  modifying  the  length  of  the 
tube  or  contracting  the  vocal  chords.  When  they 
are  played,  however,  together  with  keyed  instru- 
ments, the  tuning  of  these  true  intonation  instru- 
ments is  of  course  modified  (though  unconsci- 
ously), to  fit  the  situation. 

All  tuning  imperfect.  All  tuning,  therefore,  is 
necessarily  imperfect,  and  is  based  upon  a  system 
called  ' '  Temperament. ' '  This  system  is  described 
and  explained  completely  in  the  third  and  fourth 
chapters  of  this  book. 

Temperament.  I  have  taken  the  reader  through 
a  somewhat  lengthy  explanation  of  the  necessity 
for  Temperament  on  the  notion  that  thereby  he 
will  be  able  to  understand  for  himself,  from  the 


Mechanics  of  the  Musical  Scale.  35 

beginning,  the  necessity  for  doing  things  that 
otherwise  would  seem  illogical  and  inconsistent. 
The  peculiar  kind  of  tuning  that  the  piano  tuner 
must  do  would  seem  in  the  highest  degree  absurd 
if  the  student  did  not  understand  the  reasons  for 
doing  what  he  is  taught  to  do.  Seeing  also  that 
this  correct  knowledge  is  seldom  given  by  those 
who  teach  the  practical  side  of  the  art,  I  thought 
it  better  to  go  into  some  detail.  In  any  case,  it  is 
well  to  realize  that  no  man  can  possibly  be  a  really 
artistic  piano  tuner  unless  he  does  know  all  that  is 
contained  in  this  chapter  and  all  that  is  contained 
in  the  next  three.  It  is  worth  while  therefore  to 
be  patient  and  follow  through  to  the  end  the  course 
of  the  argument  set  forth  here.^ 


1  A  complete  discussion  of  the  problem  of  True  or  Just  Intona- 
tion is  to  be  found  in  the  classic  work  of  Helmholtz,  to  which 
the  reader  is  referred.  See  especially  Chapter  XVI,  Appendices  17 
and  18  and  the  famous  Appendix  20,  composed  by  the  English 
translator,  A.  J.  Ellis.  My  own  "Theory  and  Practice  of  Piano- 
forte Building"  contains  (Chapter  VI)  a  useful  discussion  of  the 
Musical  Scale  and  Musical  Intonation. 


Chapter  II. 

ON   THE   VIBRATION    OF   A   PIANO   STRING. 

Of  all  sounding  bodies  known  to  music,  tlie 
musical  string  is  without  doubt  the  most  common, 
the  most  easily  manipulated  for  musical  and  me- 
chanical purposes,  and  the  most  efficient.  Ac- 
quaintance with  ascertained  facts  as  to  the  be- 
havior of  musical  strings  under  practical  condi- 
tions is  necessary  for  the  complete  equipment  of 
the  piano  tuner;  although  this  acquaintance  need 
not  be  exhaustive,  so  long  as  it  be,  to  its  extent, 
exact.  Avoiding  mathematical  symbols  which, 
requisite  as  they  are  to  a  comprehensive  study  of 
Acoustics,  may  nevertheless  be  beyond  the  famil- 
iarity of  most  of  those  who  will  read  this  book, 
I  shall  here  briefly  investigate  certain  properties 
of  musical  strings  and  especially  of  the  piano 
string.  The  discussion,  I  can  promise,  need  seem 
neither  dry  nor  uninteresting. 

The  String.  To  be  exact,  a  string  should  be 
defined  as  a  perfectly  flexible  and  perfectly  uni- 

36 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       37 

form  filament  of  solid  material  stretched  between 
two  fixed  points.  But  such  a  string,  it  must  be  ob- 
served, can  exist  only  as  a  mathematical  abstrac- 
tion, since  neither  perfect  uniformity  nor  perfect 
flexibility  can  be  expected  in  strings  made  by 
human  hands.  A  string  of  given  flexibility  be- 
comes more  flexible,  as  to  its  whole  length,  if  that 
length  be  increased,  and,  conversely,  stiffer  as  its 
length  is  decreased.  The  property  of  weight  also 
fluctuates  in  the  same  way.  Likewise  if  the  force 
whereby  a  given  string  is  stretched  between  two 
points  be  measured  in  a  given  number  of  pounds, 
the  effective  tension  equivalent  thereto  will  of 
course  be  decreased  if  the  string  be  lengthened ;  or 
conversely  will  be  increased  if  the  string  be  short- 
ened. A  string  12  inches  long  stretched  with  a 
weight  of  10  pounds  is  subjected  to  a  lower  tension 
than  is  a  6-inch  string  of  similar  density  and 
thickness  stretched  with  the  same  weight.  These 
allowances  and  corrections,  obvious  as  they  are, 
must  constantly  be  kept  in  mind  if  we  are  to  un- 
derstand the  behavior  of  practical  strings,  since 
all  the  acoustical  laws  which  govern  such  behavior 
must  be  modified  in  practice  according  to  the  facts 
disclosed  above. 
Simple  Vibration.    We  have  learned  that  mus- 


38  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

ical  sounds  owe  their  existence  to  the  fact  that 
some  solid  body  is  thrown  into  a  state  of  periodic 
vibration.  The  kind  of  vibration  can  best  be  ex- 
plained by  likening  it  to  the  swing  to  and  fro  of  s 
a  pendulum.  A  pendulum  is  fixed  at  one  end  and 
tends  naturally  to  swing  back  and  forth  on  its 
pivot.  The  kind  of  vibration  which  the  pendulum 
performs  is  called  simple  or  pendular  vibration. 
The  tuning  fork,  when  set  in  vibration,  is  also  very 
much  the  same  thing  as  a  pendulum,  since  one  end 
of  each  prong  is  fixed  and  the  other  end  can  there- 
fore swing  freely.  The  tuning  fork  furnishes, 
when  excited,  an  excellent  practical  example  of 
simple  or  pendular  vibration  of  sufficient  rapidity 
to  produce  musical  sound. 

Tones  of  the  Piano  String.  Go  to  a  piano  and 
strike  one  of  the  low  bass  keys  in  the  octave  be- 
tween A-i  and  A.  These  very  low  keys  operate  on 
single  strings  only  and  hence  are  excellently 
adapted  for  our  purpose.^ 

Strike  on  the  piano  the  key  (say)  F.    Hold  the 

1  Incidentally,  let  me  say  that  the  piano  is  an  almost  complete 
ready-made  acoustical  instrument  for  the  investigation  of  the 
phenomena  of  musical  strings,  sympathetic  resonance,  beats  and 
beat-tones,  and  partials.  With  a  piano  at  hand  the  student  can 
dispense  with  all  experimental  means  except  the  tuning-fork.  I 
shall  suppose  that  a  piano  is  at  hand  during  the  reading  of  this 
and  other  chapters. 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       39 

key  down,  and  listen  carefully.  At  first  you  will 
hear  simply  the  full  sonorous  tone  F,  deep  and 
solemn.  But  listen  closely,  repeating  the  experi- 
ment till  the  ear  becomes  familiar,  and  you  will 
gradually  observe  that,  mingled  with  the  original 
sound  F,  there  are  a  number  of  other  sounds,  ap- 
parently very  closely  related  to  the  original,  color- 
ing it  rather  than  altering  its  pitch,  but  at  the 
same  time  recognizable  as  sounds  that  spring  from 
a  different  level.  By  repeating  the  experiment 
with  various  of  these  low  strings  (or  by  going 
higher  and  taking  care  that  one  string  in  the  two- 
string  unisons  is  damped  off),  you  will  gradually 
be  able  to  perceive  the  remarkable  fact  that  every 
piano  string  produces  a  sort  of  compound  tone, 
consisting  primarily  of  its  natural  tone  or  funda- 
mental, as  we  may  call  it,  but  containing  also  the 
octave  thereto,  the  fifth  above  that  and  the  second 
octave.  It  is  true  that  these  extra  sounds  are 
feeble  and  can  be  heard  only  by  means  of  practice 
and  the  exercise  of  patience;  but  heard  they  can 
be,  more  and  more  clearly  as  one's  familiarity 
with  the  process  grows. 

Partial  Tones.  The  truth  is  that  the  piano 
string  does  not  evolve  a  simple  but  an  exceedingly 
complex  musical  tone.    Not  only  the  three  extra 


40  Modern  Piano  Tuning, 

tones  of  which  I  spoke  before  can  be  proved  to 
exist,  but  in  fact  an  immense  number  of  other 
tones,  all  bearing  given  harmonic  relations  to  the 
fundamental,  can  be  shown  to  be  evoked,  and  by 
the  use  of  suitable  apparatus  can  be  detected  and 
isolated,  one  by  one,  through  the  sense  of  hear- 
ing. Special  resonators  have  been  made  which 
enable  the  hearer  to  detect  these  partial  tones 
clearly. 

Even  without  such  special  apparatus,  however, 
we  can  detect  a  number  of  the  partial  tones  if  we 
take  advantage  of  the  piano 's  property  of  sympa- 
thetic resonance;  a  property  imparted  by  the 
sound-board. 

Sympathetic  Resonance.  Hold  down  the  middle 
C  key,  without  striking  the  string.  Then,  while 
holding  the  key  down,  strike  a  powerful  blow  on 
the  C  immediately  below.  When  the  sound  has 
swelled  up,  let  go  the  lower  key  whilst  holding  on 
to  the  upper  or  silently  pressed  key.  At  once  the 
sound  of  middle  C  floats  out  of  the  silence,  pure 
and  ethereal.  What  is  the  cause  of  this  sound? 
How  has  the  middle  C  string  been  excited?  The 
answer  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  lower  string 
which  was  struck,  not  only  produces  its  funda- 
mental tone  but  also  evokes  its  octave  above.     The 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       41 

peculiar  sort  of  vibration  of  the  C2  string  which 
produced  this  octave  is  resonated  through  the 
sound-board  and  reproduced  on  the  middle-C 
string.  In  the  same  way,  the  twelfth  (G3)  can  be 
brought  out,  and  so  can  the  next  octave  C4.  In 
fact,  with  a  very  good  piano  and  by  choosing  a  low 
enough  sound  for  the  fundamental,  even  higher 
partial  tones  can  thus  be  brought  out  by  sympa- 
thetic resonance  from  the  original  string  to  the 
string  corresponding  with  the  true  pitch  of  that 
partial.^ 

Complex  String  Vibration.  Thus  we  learn  that 
the  piano  string  vibrates  as  a  complex  of  vibra- 
tions, not  as  one  simple  form  of  vibration;  for  it 
is  evident  that  if  the  string  evokes,  as  we  know  it 
does,  a  complex  of  sounds,  these  must  arise  from 
a  complex  of  vibrations.    Let  us  see  how  this  is : 

Turning  again  to  the  piano,  select  a  string  in 
such  a  position  that  it  can  be  measured  accurately 
as  to  its  speaking  length.  A  grand  piano  is  most 
convenient  for  the  purpose,  and  the  string  may  be 
selected  from  the  overstrung  or  bass  section. 
Now  accurately  measure  the  speaking  length  of 
the  string  between  bridges,  and  mark  carefully 

1  For  a  further  discussion  of  sympathetic  resonance,  see  Chap- 
ter VII. 


42  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

with  a  piece  of  chalk  on  the  sound-board  the 
exact  middle  point  as  near  as  you  can  determine 
it.  Then  sound  the  string  and  whilst  holding 
down  the  key,  touch  the  string  at  the  middle  point 
very  lightly  with  a  feather.  If  you  perform  the 
operation  skilfully  enough,  you  will  find  that  in- 
stantly the  fundamental  tone  of  the  string  ceases 
and  there  floats  out  the  octave  above,  quite  alone 
and  distinct. 

Measure  now  one-third  of  the  length,  mark  it, 
and  again  sound  the  string.  Placing  the  feather 
carefully  at  the  exact  division  point  and  damping 
the  shorter  segment  with  a  finger,  the  fifth  above 
the  original  sound  is  heard. 

Automatic  string  division.  What  is  the  mean- 
ing of  all  this?  Plainly  in  the  first  case  it  meant 
that  the  string  naturally  subdivides  itself  into 
two  parts  of  equal  length  and  that  the  vibration 
of  either  half  gives  the  octave  above  the  original. 
Thus  we  have  two  vitally  important  facts  at  our 
disposal,  one  relating  to  the  form  of  vibration  of 
the  string  and  the  other  to  the  law  of  string  length 
as  proportioned  to  pitch. 

Moreover,  in  the  second  case,  if  we  allowed  the 
Vs  division  of  the  string  to  vibrate,  we  should  get 
from  it  a  sound  an  octave  above  the  sound  of  the 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       43 

longer  or  %  division.  Since  we  damped  the 
shorter  segment,  however,  we  conclude  that  the 
fifth  above  the  original  sound  was  produced  by  a 
string  length  %  of  the  original  length.  If  we  now 
continue  our  experiments  we  may  find  that  %  of 
the  original  length  produces  a  major  3rd  above  the 
original  sound,  and  that  H  of  the  length  produces 
a  sound  2  octaves  above  the  original  sound. 
Plainly  then,  we  have  two  great  laws  revealed. 
The  first  is : 

When  a  string  fixed  at  each  end  like  the  piano 
string,  is  struck  at  one  end,  it  vibrates  in  a  com- 
plex form,  most  strongly  in  its  full  length  but  also 
perceptibly  in  segments  of  that  length  such  as  ^, 
%,  %  and  H. 

The  second  law  is  equally  important.  It  may 
be  stated  as  follows: 

Length  and  Pitch.  The  pitch  of  a  string — that 
is  to  say,  the  number  of  vibrations,  per  unit  of 
time,  it  can  perform,  is  proportional  inversely  to 
its  length.  Thus,  since  an  octave  above  a  given 
sound  has  twice  as  many  vibrations  per  second  as 
the  original  sound,  it  follows  that  to  obtain  a 
sound  an  octave  above  a  given  sound  we  must  have 
a  string  one-half  as  long. 

Weight,  Thickness  and  Tension.    Similar  laws 


44  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

exist  with  regard  to  the  influence  upon  string  vi- 
brations of  weight,  thickness  and  tension.  With- 
out undertaking  to  prove  these  completely,  we 
may  state  them  briefly  as  follows : 

The  frequency  of  a  string's  vibration  is  in- 
versely proportional  to  the  square  root  of  its 
weight.  In  other  words,  if  the  weight  be  di- 
vided by  4  (the  square  of  2)  the  frequency 
will  be  multiplied  by  2.  To  produce  a  tone  one 
octave  below  its  original  tone,  the  weight  of  the 
string  must  be  increased  in  the  proportion  4:1. 
To  produce  a  tone  one  octave  above  the  original 
tone,  the  weight  of  the  string  must  be  only  Yi  its 
original  weight. 

The  frequency  of  string  vibrations  is  directly 
proportional  to  the  square  root  of  their  tension. 
In  other  words,  to  get  twice  as  many  vibrations, 
you  must  multiply  the  tension  by  2  ^  =  4.  To  get 
four  times  as  many  vibrations  you  must  multiply 
the  tension  by  4  ^  =  16.  So  if  a  string  be  stretched 
with  a  weight  of  10  lbs.  and  it  is  desired  to  make  it 
sound  an  octave  higher,  this  can  be  done  by  mak- 
ing the  stretching  weight  (4  X  10)=  40  lbs. 

The  frequency  of  string  vibrations  is  inversely 
proportional  to  the  thickness  of  the  string.  If  a 
string  of  a  given  length  and  weight  produces  a 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       45 

tone  of  a  given  number  of  vibrations,  a  string  of 
the  same  length  and  twice  the  thickness  will  give 
a  tone  one  octave  lower;  that  is,  of  half  the  num- 
ber of  vibrations. 

Mechanical  Variable  Factors.  All  of  these 
laws,  be  it  remembered,  are  based  on  the  assump- 
tion of  mathematical  strings,  in  which  weight  and 
stiffness  remain  constant  through  all  changes  in 
length.  In  the  case  of  the  actual  piano  string, 
in  which  the  weight  and  tension  do  vary  with  the 
length,  some  compensation  must  be  made  when 
calculating.  Thus,  to  illustrate,  it  is  found  that 
whereas  the  acoustical  law  for  frequency  of  vi- 
bration requires  a  doubling  of  the  string  length  at 
each  octave  downwards  or  halving  at  each  octave 
upwards,  the  practical  string,  where  weight  and 
tension  vary  with  length,  requires  a  proportion 
of  1 : 1.875  instead  of  1 :  2.  This  difference  must 
be  kept  in  mind.^ 

Why  Strings  Subdivide.  Before,  however,  we 
go  on  to  consider  the  influence  exerted,  through 
the  peculiar  manner  in  which  strings  vibrate,  upon 
the  problems  of  tuning  and  tone-quality,  we  must 
take  the  trouble  to  discover  why  they  should,  in 

1  For  discussions  of  this  point,  see  my  "Theory  and  Practice 
of  Pianoforte  Building,"  Chapter  VIII. 


46  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

fact,  vibrate  in  this  rather  than  in  some  other  way. 
It  is  easy  to  talk  about  string  subdivision  and 
partial  tones,  but  there  is  very  little  use  in  mouth- 
ing words  that  do  not  carry  with  them  to  our 
minds  real  meanings,  or  in  talking  about  processes 
which  we  do  not  really  understand.  So,  let  us 
take  the  trouble  to  discover  why  a  string  vibrates 
as  we  have  shown  it  to  vibrate.  Here  again,  the 
piano  shall  be  our  instrument  of  investigation. 

The  Wash-line  Experiment.  The  first  thing  to 
realize  when  we  begin  to  talk  about  string  vibra- 
tions is  that  the  vibration  itself  is  merely  the 
transmission  of  a  motion  from  one  end  of  the 
string  to  the  other.  This  motion  will  continue  un- 
til it  is  transformed  into  some  other  sort  of  energy 
or  else  is  thrown  out  of  its  direction  into  another 
direction.  Suppose  that  you  take  a  long  cord,  like 
a  wash-line.  Obtain  one  as  much  as  twenty  feet 
long.  Fasten  one  end  to  a  post  and  stretch  the 
cord  out  until  you  hold  the  other  end  in  your  hand 
with  the  entire  length  fairly  slack.  Now  try  to 
jerk  the  cord  up  and  down  so  that  you  can  get  it 
to  vibrate  in  one  long  pulse.  That  pulse  will  af- 
fect the  entire  length  of  the  cord,  which  you  will 
observe  to  rise  from  its  plane  of  rest,  belly  out 
in  a  sort  of  wave,  descend  to  the  point  of  rest 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       47 

again,  belly  out  once  more  on  tlie  opposite  side 
and  return  to  the  point  of  rest,  making  a  complete 
swing  to  and  fro.  Compare  the  illustration  fig- 
ure 6. 

When  you  find  that  you  can  do  this  (practice  is 
needed),  try  a  different  experiment.  Try  to  jerk 
the  cord  with  a  sort  of  short  sharp  jerk  so  that, 
instead  of  vibrating  in  its  whole  length,  a  sort  of 


Figure  6. 

hump  is  formed  on  the  cord  which  travels  like  a 
wave  through  a  body  of  water.  This  short  wave 
will  travel  along  the  whole  cord,  as  you  will  be  able 
to  see  by  watching  it  narrowly,  until  it  comes  to 
the  end  fixed  on  the  post.  At  once  you  will  see 
that  the  wave,  instead  of  disappearing,  is  reflected 
back,  reversing  its  direction  of  travel  and  also  its 
position,  being  now  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
cord.  Thus  reflected,  the  short  wave  travels  back 
to  you. 

This  is  an  example  of  what  is  called  the  reflec- 


48  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

Hon  of  a  sound  impulse.  But  it  has  a  very  impor- 
tant bearing  on  the  general  problem  of  piano 
string  vibration,  as  we  shall  see. 

Suppose  that  you  are  able  to  time  your  efforts 
so  carefully  that  you  can  deliver  a  series  of  these 
short  sharp  jerks,  forming  these  short  waves,  at 
the  rate  of  one  per  second.  If  you  time  your  im- 
pulses carefully,  you  will  find  that  the  second 
impulse  will  start  away  from  your  hand  just  as  the 


Figure  7. 

first  impulse  starts  back  from  the  fixed  end  of 
the  string.  The  two  impulses,  traveling  in 
opposite  directions  and  in  opposite  phases  of 
motion  (in  positions  on  the  cord  opposite  to  each 
other),  will  meet  precisely  in  the  center,  for  neither 
one  can  pass  the  other.  At  their  meeting  place,  the 
exact  middle  of  the  string,  the  forces  are  equal  and 
opposite,  so  that  a  node  or  point  of  greatly  dimin- 
ished amplitude  of  motion  is  formed.  The  two 
pulses  therefore  have  no  option  but  to  continue 
vibrating  independently,  thus  dividing  the  string 
into  two  independently  vibrating  halves,  each  of 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       49 

double  the  original  speed.  See  the  illustration 
figure  7. 

Meanwhile  a  second  impulse  from  the  hand  be- 
gins to  travel  along  the  cord  and  upon  its  meeting 
the  already  segmented  halves  the  result  is  a  fur- 
ther reflection  and  subdivision.  This  again  con- 
tinues still  further  at  the  next  impulse,  so  that 
finally,  if  the  impulses  can  be  kept  up  long  enough, 
the  result  will  be  the  division  of  the  cord  into  four, 
five,  six,  and  up  to  perhaps  ten  of  these  "ventral 
segments,"  separated  by  nodes. 

Harmonic  Motion.  This  being  the  mode  of  vi- 
bration of  slow  moving  cords,  we  can  see  how  the 
rapidly  moving  piano  strings  are  instantly  thrown 
into  the  state  of  complex  vibration  described 
above ;  for  we  must  remember  that  not  only  is  the 
vibration  very  rapid,  ranging  from  27  to  more  than 
4100  vibrations  per  second,  but  also  that  there  is 
no  limit  to  the  possible  number  of  subdivisions. 
Moreover,  the  piano  string  is  very  stiff  and  being 
fixed  at  both  ends  and  excited  by  a  stiff  blow,  its 
motion  is  not  only  rapid  but  powerful,  so  that  the 
reflections  are  unusually  strong  and  numerous. 
Hence  the  wave  of  motion  of  the  piano  string  is 
remarkably  complex. 

Besultant  Motion.    The  entire  complex  motion 


50 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       51 

of  the  piano  string  is  of  course  the  result  of  the 
operation  of  many  forces,  moving  from  different 
directions,  upon  a  single  resistance;  so  that  the 
result  of  the  interference  of  the  forces  with  each 
other  is  that  their  net  efficiency  works  out  in  some 
direction  which  is  a  resultant  of  all  the  directions. 
Thus,  the  piano  string,  if  it  be  examined  under  mo- 
tion by  any  optical  method,  is  seen  to  vibrate  in  a 
wave  motion  which  is  the  resultant  of  all  the  par- 
tial motions.  The  general  appearance  of  such  a 
wave  is  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  figure  8,  which 
gives  (theoretically)  the  resultant  of  a  wave  mo- 
tion including  subdivision  into  six  segments.^ 
The  piano  usually  has  the  first  eight  and  often  the 
ninth,  in  the  lower  and  middle  registers,  and  still 
higher  partials  in  the  high  treble,  but  the  latter 
can  hardly  be  isolated  without  special  apparatus ; 
and  then  not  easily.  Of  course,  as  we  shall  see 
later,  there  are  certain  causes  which  affect  the 
form  of  the  wave  in  the  piano  string,  in  practical 

1  This  illustration  is  after  the  original  by  Prof.  A.  M.  Mayer, 
of  Stevens  Institute,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  American  acous- 
ticians. Professor  Mayer's  drawings  of  harmonic  curves  and  re- 
sultants were  first  published  in  the  Philosophical  Magazine  for 
1875.  In  order  to  show  clearly  the  six  separate  wave  motions, 
their  respective  amplitudes  have  been  made  proportional  to  wave 
length.  This  is  of  course  a  scientific  fiction,  but  the  eflFect  upon 
the  resultant  curve  is  not  markedly  distorting. 


52  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

conditions,  and  so  modify  the  series  of  partials. 
Fourier's  Theorem.  One  of  the  greatest  of 
French  mathematicians,  Fourier,  investigating  an- 
other subject  altogether,  discovered  the  law  of 
this  harmonic  motion  of  a  string  when  he  showed 
that  every  complex  vibratory  motion  can  be  re- 
duced to  a  series  of  simple  pendular  motions,  of 
which  the  terms  are  as  follows : 

1  1/  1/  1/  IZ  1/.  1/4  1/  1/.  V-ir,  ^i<^-  «"^  infinitum. 
1,    72,    73,     A,     /5,     /G,     /7,    /S,     /9,     /lO, 

In  other  words,  the  very  subdivision  of  the  piano 
string  into  segments  is  here  shown  mathematically 
to  be  the  necessary  basis  of  all  compound  motion 
in  vibrational  form.  Thus  mathematics,  from  an- 
other angle,  amply  confirms  the  ideas  above  set 
forth.i 

Partial  Tones.  The  string,  then,  vibrates  in  its 
whole  length,  its  y2,  Vs,  Vi,  M,  Yc,  Vi,  Vs,  and  smaller 
segments  indefinitely.  The  whole  length  vibra- 
tion produces  the  fundamental  tone  of  the  string. 
The  %  gives  twice  as  many  vibrations,  or  the  oc- 
tave above.  The  Vs  gives  the  twelfth,  and  the  % 
gives  the  double  octave.  Thus,  the  piano  string 
C  64,  when  sounded,  actually  involves  not  only  the 
fundamental  tone  but  all  the  following: 

ij.  B.  Fourier,  1768-1830,  author  of  "Analysis  of  Determinate 
Equations." 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       53 


First  16  partiala  of  Ci  =  64. 


Ej    63    Bbj  C4    D4    E*  Ft»4    G*     A*   Bb*    BK    C5 


^ 


? 


\>0    y 


^ 


r  rf^r  f 


12  3  4 

64       128         192       256 


5      6     7      8      9      10     II      12     13      14      15      r6 
320  384  448  512    576  640  704  766  832    896    960   (024 

Figure  9. 


and  many  more  not  shown.  All  these  are  called 
partials.  The  fundamental  is  the  first  partial,  the 
octave  is  the  second,  and  so  on.  Above  the  tenth, 
although  the  number  of  possible  subdivisions  is 
unlimited,  the  pitch  becomes  less  and  less  definitely 
referable  to  any  specific  note  of  the  scale.  The 
first  6  partials,  as  can  be  seen,  are  simply  the 
common  chord  of  C  spread  out.  The  8th,  10th, 
12tli  and  16th  are  octaves  to  the  4th,  5th,  6th  and 
8th.  The  7th  is  flatter  than  the  diatonic  seventh 
which  we  use,  although  the  former  is  the  natural 
tone  and  the  latter  quite  artificial.^  The  other 
odd-numbered  partials  are  all  more  or  less  out  of 
tune  with  their  nominal  equivalents,  until,  at  a 
short  distance  above  the  16th,  all  pretence  of  con- 
sonance except  in  the  20th,  24th  and  32nd,  has  van- 
ished. 

1  Cf.  Chapter  1,  "Natural  Scale." 


54  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

Influence  of  Partials.  It  should  be  remembered 
that,  although  all  the  odd-  and  most  of  the  even- 
numbered  partials  above  the  10th  are  dissonant 
and  this  dissonance  progressively  increases — if 
one  may  use  the  term — the  number  of  partials  that 
may  occur  above  the  10th  in  a  piano  string  is 
quite  large.  This  being  the  case,  it  will  be  under- 
stood that  although  these  partials  are  relatively 
feeble,  and  their  sounds  do  not  affect  the  general 
sensation  of  pitch,  they  do  have  another  effect; 
and  this  is  felt  in  what  is  called  the  ** quality"  or 
''color"  of  the  sound.  In  fact,  as  we  shall  soon 
see,  the  harshness  or  mellowness,  thinness  or  full- 
ness, of  a  sound,  as  evoked  from  the  piano,  not 
to  mention  the  greater  characteristic  differences 
which  distinguish  the  tone  of  one  instrument  from 
that  of  another,  are  all  to  be  attributed  to  the 
manner  in  which  the  various  partials  are  mixed 
with  the  fundamental. 

Series  of  Partials.  But  why  should  there  be 
from  one  piano  string  a  mixture  of  partial  tones 
different  from  that  which  persists  in  another? 
For  that  matter,  since  the  tendency  of  other  sonor- 
ous bodies,  like  pipes  for  instance,  is  to  divide  up 
naturally  into  ventral  segments,  like  strings,  why 
should  not  all  tone  quality  be  alike?     Obviously 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       55 

the  difference  must  arise  because  one  wave  form 
varies  from  another ;  or  in  other  words  because  one 
string  or  pipe  or  rod  produces  one  specific  mix- 
ture of  partials  and  another  a  different  mixture. 
Why  this  should  be  so  in  the  case  of  the  piano 
string,  which  is  our  present  concern,  I  shall  now 
comprehensively  explain,  and  the  following  dis- 
cussion will  be  of  great  assistance  in  promoting 
an  understanding  of  some  most  important  prob- 
lems. 

Point  of  Contact.  The  piano  string  is  excited 
by  a  more  or  less  violent  blow  from  a  felt-covered 
hammer.  The  impulse  thus  given  to  the  string  is 
relatively  powerful,  and  its  effect  upon  the  highly 
tensioned  filament  of  steel  is  such  as  to  induce 
instant  reflection  of  the  sound-impulse  and  sub- 
division of  the  string  into  many  ventral  segments. 
But  the  exact  individual  segments  into  which  the 
subdivision  takes  place  are  determined  by  one  spe- 
cial condition ;  namely,  by  the  position  of  the  ham- 
mer's  point  of  contact.  As  will  be  remembered, 
the  segments  of  the  string  are  separated  from  each 
other  by  points  of  apparent  rest  called  nodes.  Of 
course,  these  nodes  are  not  actually  at  rest,  but  the 
amplitude  of  their  motion  is  greatly  restricted  by 
reason  of  the  opposed  forces  pulling  from  each 


56  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

side  upon  them.  If  now  the  exciting  blow  is 
struck  exactly  on  one  of  the  nodes,  the  vibration 
of  the  shorter  of  the  two  segments  into  which  that 
node  divides  the  string,  and  equally  the  vibrations 
of  all  multiples  thereof,  are  blotted  out.  Thus,  if 
we  wish  to  eliminate  the  7th  partial,  we  must 
strike  on  the  7th  node,  that  is  to  say  at  exactly  Vi 
of  the  string's  speaking  length.  It  is  obvious  that 
since  the  first  six  partials  are  simply  components 
of  the  common  chord  of  the  fundamental  or  1st 
partial,  and  the  8th  is  triple  octave  thereto,  the 
elimination  of  the  7th  will  produce  a  perfectly 
harmonious  flow  of  partials  and  in  consequence  a 
full  round  mellow  tone.  Experience  confirms  this 
deduction,  although  the  exigencies  of  piano  build- 
ing usually  compel  a  striking  distance,  as  it  is 
called,  positioned  at  Vs  or  even  higher  for  the 
greater  number  of  the  strings,  and  running  pro- 
gressively higher  in  the  upper  treble  till  it  some- 
times reaches  /44  at  the  extreme  C7.  The  influence 
of  contact  point  position  is  thus  clearly  shown, 
for  if  any  of  the  very  high  strings  be  purposely 
struck  at  lower  points  than  the  hammers  are 
fixed  to  strike  them,  it  will  be  found  that  their 
tone  is  less  bright,  more  mellow  and  even  feebler. 
The  last  quality  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  prime 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       57 

or  1st  partial  of  these  short  stiff  strings  is  not 
sufficiently  powerful  of  itself  and  needs  the  back- 
ing, as  one  may  say,  of  many  partials  to  give  it 
consistency  and  ^^ring."  It  might  be  remem- 
bered incidentally  that  in  the  two  highest  octaves 
of  the  piano  the  progressively  higher  contact 
points  of  the  hammers  on  the  strings  introduce 
series  of  partials  running  from  the  first  ten  to 
the  first  twenty.  But  the  longer  and  more  natu- 
rally powerful  strings  are  struck  at  about  Vs  of 
their  distance  and  would  often  be  bettor  off  if 
struck  at  Yt. 

Material.  The  properties  of  the  material  from 
which  the  string  is  made  are  also  of  importance  in 
considering  the  precise  nature  of  the  mixture  of 
partials  which  any  given  example  may  show.  The 
stiffer  a  string  is,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
more  rapid  and  complex  will  be  the  reflections  of 
wave-motion  and  the  consequent  formation  of  ven- 
tral segments.  By  stiffness  I  do  not  mean  thick- 
ness; for  of  course  the  thicker  the  string  the 
less  intense  will  be  the  wave-reflections  and  the 
fewer  the  high  partials  produced.  But  the  piano 
is  peculiar  in  that  the  tension  of  its  strings  does 
not  vary  largely  from  one  end  to  the  other,  whilst 
the  thickness  does  indeed  differ  very  largely  in 


58  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

proportion,  since  even  in  the  understrung  part  of 
the  scale  the  difference  betwen  the  extreme  treble 
and  the  first  above  the  overstrung  will  usually  be 
something  like  the  difference  between  5  and  8.  So 
it  follows  that  the  upper  treble  strings  are  very- 
much  stiffer  than  those  in  the  lower  regions,  in 
proportion  to  their  length.  Of  course,  the  length 
factor  enters  into  the  complex  here  too,  for  the 
higher  strings  are  shorter,  and  so  again  stiffer,  for 
any  given  stretching  force. 
/  /  Wire  density.    In  the  circumstances  it  would 

seem,  after  one  has  tested  various  pianos  of  vari- 
ous grades,  that  the  idea  of  intensely  hard  wire  is 
most  distinctly  a  wrong  idea;  at  least  if  we  are 
trying  to  get  round  full  tone  and  not  hard  glitter. 
The  very  hard  wire  is  no  longer  so  generally  de- 
manded, and  piano  makers  are  begining  to  require 
a  string  of  softer  steel  which  shall  tend  to  produce, 
under  the  lowered  tension  conditions  thus  made 
necessary,  vibrational  mixtures  involving  fewer 
ventral  segments,  the  upper  of  which  with  their 
consequent  partials  shall  be  less  prominent. 

String  Tension.  A  softer  wire  cannot  with- 
stand excessive  tensions.  But  we  can  easily  see 
that  high  tension  means  stiffness,  and  one  only 
has  to  listen  critically  to  the  tone  of  most  pianos 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       59 

to  realize  that  their  strings  do  not  err  on  the  side 
of  resiliency.  They  are  usually  too  stiff  as  it  is, 
and  although  the  craze  for  clang  and  noise  seems 
to  be  dying  out — for  which  we  should  be  thank- 
ful— still,  there  is  much  to  be  done  yet.  The  piano 
of  the  future,  let  us  hope,  will  be  a  low  tension 
piano,  equipped  with  softer  wire  and  with  a  ham- 
mer shaped  and  positioned  to  kill  the  7th  harmonic 
and  all  its  multiples ;  a  piano  which  will  have  few 
partials  in  its  tone  above  the  seventh  and  which 
in  consequence  will  evoke  sounds,  full,  mellow  and 
sustained  in  quality.^ 

Voicing.  In  Chapter  IX  of  this  book,  I  make  use 
of  the  material  here  set  forth  in  order  to  show 
the  practical  application  of  Acoustical  science  to 
the  work  of  tone-regulating  or  voicing  pianos  by 
manipulation  of  the  hammer  felt. 

Simultaneous  String  Vibrations.  We  shall  now 
have  to  face  the  last  and  in  some  ways  the  most 
fascinating  of  all  the  subjects  which  we  shall  con- 
front in  the  course  of  our  examination  into  the 
vibrations  of  the  piano  string.     So  far  we  have 

1  other  piano  string  characteristics:  For  some  special  cases 
exhibited  by  piano  strings  under  practical  conditions,  the  reader 
may  consult  Chapter  VII.  Piano  Ibass  strings:  The  special  cases 
exhibited  by  the  covered  strings  for  the  bass  tones,  are  dis- 
cussed in  Chapter  VII. 


60  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

confined  our  thought  to  individual  strings  sound- 
ing alone.  We  now  have  to  consider  the  very 
beautiful  and  important  phenomena  arising  from 
the  sounding  of  two  tones  simultaneously.  The 
inquiry  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  higher 
analysis  of  piano  tuning. 

Beats.  The  piano  serves  us  again  to  good  pur- 
pose in  examining  the  behavior  of  simultaneously 
sounded  tones.  Let  us  damp  off  one  string  in  a 
triple  unison  on  the  piano.  (All  strings  of  the 
modern  piano  above  the  overstrung  section  are 
strung  with  three  strings  to  the  note.)  This  will 
leave  two  strings  vibrating.  If  the  piano  has  not 
been  tuned  very  recently,  it  is  almost  certain  that 
when  we  listen  carefully  to  the  sounding  of  these 
two  strings  we  shall  hear  a  sort  of  sound  that 
can  only  be  described  as  discontinuous  and 
**wavy."  In  order  to  make  sure,  suppose  we 
choose  the  strings  corresponding  to  Cg  =  258.65 
(middle  C  at  international  pitch).  Let  us  damp 
one  string  of  the  triple  and  then  slightly  turn  the 
pin  of  one  of  the  others  so  as  definitely  to  put 
it  out  of  tune  with  its  fellow.  A  very  slight  turn, 
just  enough  to  feel  the  string  give,  will  be  suffi- 
cient. Now,  take  a  tuning  fork  sounding  exactly 
the  same  international  pitch  Q^=  258.65.     Sound 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       61 

it,  and  listen  carefully.  You  will  hear  a  clear  con- 
tinuous tone,  which  persists  without  deviation  or 
fluctuation.  Put  aside  the  tuning  fork,  strike  the 
piano  key,  and  listen.  By  contrast  you  hear  a  con- 
fused medley  of  sound,  in  which  the  fundamental 
pitch  is  discernible,  but  is  surrounded  by,  and 
buried  in,  a  mass  of  wavy,  fluctuating,  rising-and- 
falling  sounds  of  a  peculiar  character,  which  are 
unmistakable  when  once  heard.  The  peculiar 
character  of  these  sounds  is  their  rise-and-fall  ef- 
fect. The  tone  swells  out  far  beyond  its  normal 
intensity  and  then  dies  away.  This  wave-like 
sound  rises  and  falls  at  definite  intervals,  and  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  further  apart  in  pitch  the 
two  strings  are,  the  more  of  these  rise-and-fall 
periods  there  will  be  in  a  given  time.  If  now  we 
begin  to  turn  the  tuning-pin  backward,  so  as  to 
bring  the  disturbed  string  again  to  its  original 
equality  of  pitch  with  the  other,  we  shall  find  that 
the  wavy  sounds  gradually  become  slower  and 
slower,  until  at  length  they  disappear,  and  only 
the  pure  continuous  tuning-fork  tone  remains; 
showing  that  the  two  strings  have  now  been 
brought  into  perfect  accord.  Let  us  see  what 
causes  this  interesting  phenomjenon. 
Condensation  and  Rarefaction.    We   must  go 


Figure  10. 

62 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       63 

back  for  a  few  moments  to  some  earlier  considera- 
tions. A  sound-wave  is  an  oscillation  to  and  fro. 
When  a  tuning  fork  prong  vibrates,  the  first  half 
of  the  vibration  is  when  the  prong  moves  away 
from  its  rest  position  and  pushes  the  air  in  front 
of  it  against  the  surrounding  air.  This  pai-t  of 
the  vibration  has  the  effect  of  compressing  the  air 
on  that  side,  whilst  on  the  other  side  the  air  moves 
forward  to  fill  up  the  vacuum  left  by  the  moving 
away  of  the  prong  and  thus  is  rarefied  or  thinned. 
Consider  a  vibrating  pendulum  (Fig.  10),  and 
think  of  it  as  if  it  were  a  slow  moving  tuning  fork. 
As  the  pendulum  moves  in  one  direction  it  con- 
denses or  compresses  the  air  in  front  of  it,  and 
then  as  it  moves  back  that  same  air  is  again  rare- 
fied or  thinned  out  to  its  original  density ;  for  air  is 
elastic  and  rebounds.  Thus  each  complete  vibra- 
tion of  tuning-fork,  string,  or  pendulum,  no  mat- 
ter how  slow  or  rapid,  produces  a  condensation 
followed  by  a  rarefaction  of  the  surrounding  air. 
Wave-length.  The  space  or  distance  between 
one  condensation  and  the  next,  or  between  one 


Figure  11. 


64  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

rarefaction  and  the  next,  is  called  the  wave-length. 
The  more  of  these  pulses  there  are  in  a  second  or 
other  unit  of  time,  the  shorter  the  length  of  each. 
Sound  travels  at  the  rate  of  1100  feet  per  second, 
roughly  speaking — the  wave-length  of  a  tone  of 
100  vibrations  per  second  therefore  is  ^^^%oo  or 
11  feet.     Figure  11  illustrates  this  point. 

Phase.  Thus  we  see  that  a  sound-wave  propa- 
gated through  the  air  consists  of  a  series  of  these 
oscillations     of    rarefaction    and    condensation. 


Figure  12. 

Now  suppose  that  you  start  two  such  wave  systems 
simultaneously  from  two  strings  perfectly  in  tune. 
Start  them  exactly  at  the  same  time  so  that  the 
condensations  begin  together.  A  good  example 
is  the  striking  of  two  strings  at  once  on  the  piano. 
The  two  run  exactly  together,  condensation  with 
condensation  and  rarefaction  with  rarefaction,  as 
is  shown  by  Figure  12,  and  are  said  to  be  in  the 
same  phase. 
Difference  of  Phase.     Now  suppose  we  can  ar- 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       65 

range  to  start  one  string  vibrating  just  half  a 
complete  vibration  beliind  the  other.  Then  con- 
densation of  No.  2  begins  with  the  first  rarefac- 


FlGURE  13. 

tion  of  No.  1  and  we  have  the  state  of  affairs 
pictured  in  Figure  13.  Such  a  condition  is  called 
difference  of  phase. 

Difference  of  one  vibration.  Suppose  two  piano 
strings,  one  of  which  gives  just  one  vibration  less 
per  second  than  the  other.  Now,  when  these  two 
strings  are  sounded  simultaneously,  it  follows  that 
at  the  end  of  a  whole  second  one  will  be  exactly 
one  vibration  behind  the  other.  Likewise  at  the 
end  of  half  a  second  one  will  be  half  a  vibration 
behind  the  other ;  or  in  other  words  at  the  end  of 
half  a  second,  or  right  in  the  middle  of  one  sec- 
ond's complete  series  of  vibrations,  the  two  will 
be  in  different  phases,  while  at  the  end  of  a  whole 
second  they  will  have  regained  identity  of  phase ; 
will  be  in  the  same  phase  together  again.  Sup- 
pose now  we  lay  out  on  paper  two  wave  systems, 
whose  frequencies  shall  be  in  the  ratio  8 :  9,  for  the 


Modern  Piano  Tuning. 


^< 


C 


sake  of  simplicity.  Let  us  also 
show,  by  a  third  wave-curve,  the 
result  of  the  simultaneous  activi- 
ties of  the  two  waves.  In  order 
to  avoid  a  complex  drawing  I  show 
just  eight  vibrations  of  the  one  and 
nine  of  the  other.  These  will  con- 
sequently begin  and  end  together. 

Resonance  and  Interference. 
Now  as  soon  as  we  examine  these 
superimposed  curves,  we  see  that 
at  the  second  complete  vibration 
they  are  distinctly  out  of  step  with 
each  other  and  by  the  time  one  has 
made  four  complete  vibrations 
they  are  in  definitely  opposite 
phase.  From  this  point  onwards 
the  difference  subsides  until  at  the 
eighth  vibration  of  the  one  and  the 
ninth  of  the  other,  the  phase  is 
again  the  same  for  both. 

Now,  it  will  at  once  be  seen  that 
when  the  two  waves  start,  two 
condensations  come  together  and 
so  we  have  one  condensation  on 
top  of  the  other,  which  of  course 


66 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       67 

means  an  increase  in  amplitude  of  the  combined 
sound.  Hence  at  the  beginning  of  the  waves  the 
sound  of  the  combined  tones  will  be  increased  over 
the  sound  of  either  of  them  alone.  We  have  a 
condition  of  resonance,  as  it  is  called. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  the  middle  of  the  curve 
has  been  reached  we  see  that  the  condensation 
of  one  meets  the  rarefaction  of  the  other  exactly, 
so  that  at  this  point  the  one  wave  blots  out  the 
other  and  produces  a  perfect  interference  as  it  is 
called,  cancelling  the  sound  altogether. 

Hence  we  have  the  rise  and  fall  of  sound  which 
we  heard  so  clearly  in  the  two  piano  strings  men- 
tioned above.^  This  rise  and  fall  is  very  distinct 
and  in  the  present  case  would  occur  at  each  8-to-9 
period;  in  other  words,  if  the  two  waves  were 
vibrating  at  80  and  90  vibrations  per  second  re- 
spectively, there  would  be  heard  10  beats  per  sec- 
,ond  between  them  when  sounded  together. 

Frequency  of  Beats.  Beats  therefore  arise  be- 
tween sounds  nominally  in  unison  but  actually 
slightly  out  of  tune  with  each  other.  The  number 
of  beats  in  a  given  time  is  equal  to  the  difference 
between  the  frequencies  of  the  generating  tones. 

Coincident  Partials.    Beats  arise  only  between 

1  See  pages  60  and  61. 


68  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

unisons.  When  heard  in  such  intervals  as  the 
Octave,  Fifth,  Fourth,  Third  or  others,  this  is 
because  partial  tones  which  may  be  common  to 
both  are  thrown  out  of  tune  slightly ;  and  the  beats 
arise  between  them.  For  instance,  the  beats  in 
an  octave  which  is  somewhat  out  of  tune  arise 
between  the  prime  of  the  upper  tone  and  the 
second  of  the  lower;  which  are  the  same.  Ex- 
ample: C,  =  CA  and  C2  =  128.  Prime  of  the 
higher  is  128.  Second  of  the  lower  is  128.^  These 
are  therefore  coincident,  and  if  the  strings  which 
produce  the  primes  are  not  in  accord,  the  coinci- 
dent partials  will  generate  beats  as  above.  The 
same  is  true  in  the  interval  of  a  perfect  Fifth  where 
the  coincident  partials  are  the  2nd  of  the  higher 
and  the  3rd  of  the  lower.  Please  observe  that  the 
coincident  partials  always  bear  the  same  num- 
bers as  express  the  ratio  of  the  fundamentals. 
Thus  octave  ratio  =  1:2  and  coincident  partials 
are  2  and  1.  Fifth  ratio  ==2:3  and  coincident 
partials  are  3  and  2.  Fourth  ratio  =  3:4,  and  co- 
incident partials  are  4  and  3;  and  so  on  for 
all  other  intervals.  For  instance:  Suppose  one 
tone  =  200  and  another  =  301.  The  interval  is  a 
Fifth,  slightly  out  of  tune,  as  the  higher  should  be 

1  See  supra,  p.  53. 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       69 

300.  Coincident  partials  are  3d  lower  and  2d 
higher.  200  X  3  =  600 ;  301  X  2  =  602.  602  — 
600  ^  2  ^  number  of  beats  per  second  in  this 
out-of-tune  Fifth. 

Use  of  Beats.  From  what  I  have  said,  it  be- 
comes plain  that  the  tuner  will  find  beats  very  use- 
ful and  must  devote  himself  to  practicing  the  art 
of  hearing  them  and  counting  them.  For  it  is  evi- 
dent that  if  the  number  of  beats  between  any  two 
coincident  partials  is  equal  to  tlie  difference  be- 
tween the  frequencies  thereof,  then  if  we  calculate 
the  exact  required  frequency  of  each  of  the  two 
members  of  an  interval  and  from  this  calculate  the 
frequency  of  their  lowest  coincident  partials,  w^e 
can  easily  and  at  once  take  the  difference  be- 
tween the  two  latter,  and  whatever  this  differ- 
ence be,  that  number  of  beats  per  second  will  be 
heard  between  them  when  sounded  together. 
Therefore  if  we  tune  the  two  members  of  the  in- 
terval so  that  we  hear  just  that  number  of  beats 
per  second  between  them,  we  have  tuned  cor- 
rectly. It  then  remains  only  to  calculate  these 
true  values  for  the  different  tones  of  the  piano  and 
thus  to  establish  proper  beat-rates  everywhere. 

Miller's  Researches.  There  is  nothing  unusual 
in  all  this  really,  for  of  course  all  tuners  tune  by 


70  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

counting  beats,  whether  they  call  the  process  by 
this  name  or  another.  The  point  I  am  making 
here  is  that  this  process  is  the  proper  and  natural 
process  and  that  it  is  capable  of  being  established 
mathematically,  as  has  been  done  by  Mr.  J.  C. 
Miller  of  Lincoln,  Neb.;  whose  researches  I  am 
happy  to  be  able  to  make  use  of  in  this  book,  as 
will  be  seen  later. 

We  have  now  discussed  to  such  an  extent  as  is 
necessary  for  our  present  purposes  the  behavior 
of  piano  strings  in  vibration ;  and  have  discovered 
that  this  discussion,  if  properly  understood,  is 
found  to  give  us  all  needed  assistance  in  both  tun- 
ing and  voicing,  provided  we  can  calculate  the 
necessary  frequencies  of  the  tones  required  on  the 
piano.  We  already  know  ^  that  the  piano  does  not 
permit  pure  tuning  of  the  diatonic  scale  but  that 
a  system  of  compromise  must  be  adopted  to  ac- 
commodate the  inequalities  of  the  diatonic  scale 
to  the  unyielding  12  keys  of  the  piano's  octave. 
The  system  of  Temperament  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, called  the  Equal  Temperament,  is  now  so 
firmly  ingrained  in  practice  that  it  is  in  fact  the 
real  basis  of  all  modern  music;  rather  than  the 
diatonic  scale,  which  indeed  is  now  little  more 

1  Supra,  Chap.  I. 


On  the  Vibration  of  a  Piano  String.       71 

than  an  artificial  abstraction.  Of  this,  however,  I 
shall  speak  in  the  next  chapter. 

If  the  present  chapter  has  seemed  at  all  involved 
this  is  only  because  I  have  had  to  treat  an  in- 
volved subject  in  simple  language  and  small  space. 
Still,  all  I  have  said  here  has  been  necessary  and 
forms  part  of  the  argument  which  I  am  develop- 
ing as  to  a  system  of  piano  tuning  and  tone-regu- 
lating; based  on  science  and  not  on  guesses  or 
rule-of-thumb — and  a  good  deal  easier  than  if  it 
were  so  based. 

For,  indeed,  among  all  the  ridiculous  supersti- 
tions of  the  human  mind,  none  is  either  commoner 
or  more  absurd  than  that  which  covers  with  con- 
tempt the  efforts  of  pioneers  to  formulate  and 
apply  scientific  method.  In  truth,  to  do  things 
scientifically  is  always  to  do  them  in  the  easiest 
as  well  as  the  best,  way;  and  your  ^'practical 
man,"  untainted  with  one  touch  of  theory,  wastes 
time  and  energy  in  equal  proportion. 


Chapter  III. 

TEMPERAMENT. 

We  have  reached  the  central  position  in  the 
science  of  tuning.  What  has  gone  before  has  been 
enough  to  show  that  one  cannot  obtain  a  series  of 
pure  diatonic  scales,  in  the  quantity  required  for 
the  performance  of  music,  with  a  key-board  com- 
prising only  twelve  keys  to  the  octave.  The  par- 
ticular method  adopted  in  Chapter  I  for  the  pur- 
pose of  showing  the  truth  of  this  assertion  might 
of  course  be  matched  by  a  dozen  others;  without 
altering  the  facts  in  the  least.  For  example,  I 
might  have  pointed  out  that  an  ascending  series  of 
perfectly  tuned  perfect  Fifths,  although  nominally 
equal  to  seven  Octaves,  yet  actually  exceeds  them. 
I  might  have  shown  that  three  major  Thirds  should 
be  equal  to  an  Octave,  if  tuned  pure  one  above  the 
other ;  but  that  in  fact  they  fall  considerably  short 
thereof.  There  are  many  other  possible  illustra- 
tions; but  I  have  already  shown,  in  the  simplest 

72 


Temperament.  73 

manner,  that  some  form  of  compromise  is  needed 
if  pianos  are  to  be  tuned  so  as  to  make  the  per- 
formance of  music  in  all  tonalities  tolerable  de- 
spite the  defective  and  inadequate  12-to-the-octave 
key-board. 

The  word  Temperament  is  generically  used  to 
indicate  any  one  of  the  many  such  systems  that 
have  been,  at  one  time  or  another,  proposed  and 
used.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  present 
type  of  key-board  dates  certainly  from  the  14th 
century  and  has  scarcely  undergone  any  change 
in  details — positively  none  in  essentials — during 
all  that  time.^  This  is  an  amazing  commentary 
on  the  slowness  of  the  human  mind  and  its  hatred 
of  change.  It  is  a  fact  that  the  width  of  an  octave, 
even,  has  remained  the  same  for  certainly  three 
hundred  years.  And  the  same  slowness  of  de- 
velopment is  true  in  other  details.^ 

Influence  of  the  key-hoard.     The  truth  implied 

1 A  terra-cotta  model  showing  a  rudimentary  form  of  key- 
board used  with  an  Hydraulikon  or  water-organ,  has  been  found 
in  the  ruins  of  Carthage,  and  is  assigned  to  the  second  century 
A.  D.  Cf .  A.  J.  Hipkins'  "Introduction  to  the  Key-board  Instru- 
ment Collection,"  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York. 

2  The  great  organ  at  Halberstadt,  Germany,  built  in  1361  by 
the  priest  Nicholas  Faber,  had  a  complete  chromatic  key-board, 
but  with  very  wide  keys.  However,  sixteenth  century  clavichords 
are  preserved  showing  key-boards  essentially  identical  with  that 
of  the  modern  piano  in  width  and  even  in  moimting. 


74  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

in  Chapter  I  may  now  be  realized  completely :  that 
the  key-board  has  always  exercised  a  distinctly 
enslaving  influence  upon  the  development  of 
music.  If  we  were  not  chained  to  the  12-note  key- 
board by  the  tradition  of  music  teaching  and  of 
piano  making,  we  should  soon  have  a  substitute, 
as  easily  taught  to  the  hand,  whereby  at  least  the 
grosser  imperfections  of  any  temperament  sys- 
tem might  be  avoided.  But  to  hope  this  is  to  hope 
too  much. 

Meaning  of  Temperament.  Actually,  the  word 
Temperament  means  ' '  tuning ' ' ;  nothing  else.  Its 
derivations  from  the  Italian  and  thence  from  the 
Latin,  show  this  clearly.  To  ''temper"  sounds 
is  to  tune  them.  And  this  fact  indicates  that  the 
necessity  for  a  compromise  from  purity  was  rec- 
ognized very  early  and  that  just  intonation  has 
never  been  even  near  accomplishment  in  ordinary 
practice.  In  fact  the  system  of  Temperament 
now  in  use  is  probably  the  best  that  has  yet  been 
contrived,  although  it  has  had  one  rival  whose 
claims  are  not  to  be  despised. 

Equal  Temperament.  The  twelve  keys  within 
the  octave  must,  of  course,  represent  amongst 
themselves  the  various  degrees  or  steps  of  rela- 
tionship   existing    within    that    interval.     Seeing 


Temperament.  75 

that  we  cannot  gain  purity  of  ratio  with  only 
twelve  keys,  it  follows  that  we  must  divide  up  the 
octave  in  some  way  that  will  admit,  as  adequately 
as  may  be,  of  performing  required  music  in  a  toler- 
able manner.  Equal  Temperament  is  the  name 
given  to  a  system  of  dividing  up  the  octave  into 
twelve  equal  parts.  This  being  the  case  and  the 
pitch  proportion  of  the  octave  interval  being  1 : 2, 
it  follows  that  the  proportion  from  semitone  to 
semitone  in  equal  temperament  is  1  r^y  or 
1 : 1.0594631,  correct  to  seven  places  of  decimals. 
This  ratio  is  the  ratio  of  the  equal  semitone,  upon 
which  the  system  is  based. 

The  Equal  Tempered  Scale.  This  being  so,  we 
have  only  to  select  some  standard  of  pitch  for 
some  one  tone  and  calculate  up  and  down  there- 
from by  the  simple  process  of  multiplying  or  divid- 
ing, semitone  by  semitone,  by  the  factor  1.0594631. 

The  octave  of  course  remains  the  one  interval 
which  retains  its  purity.  This  is  so,  because  we 
must  have  a  system  of  some  sort  and  the  octave 
provides  a  foundation  therefor.  Hence  the  octave 
remains  pure,  and  so  if  we  once  calculate  the 
equal  tempered  pitch  of  the  12  semitones  in  one 
octave  we  can  obtain  that  of  any  one  of  the  tones 
situated  in  any  other  octave  by  multiplying  by  2 


76  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

for  eacli  octave  of  distance  upwards  or  dividing 
by  2  for  each  octave  of  distance  downwards. 

Thus  we  may  say  that  Equal  Temperament  is  a 
system  in  which  the  octave  interval  is  tuned  pure 
and  all  other  intervals  are  tuned  in  such  a  way  as 
to  produce  a  tone-series  of  12  equal  parts  within 
each  octave. 

International  Pitch.  The  nominal  standard  now 
recognized  for  the  basis  of  pitch  in  the  United 
States  is  A3  =  435.  This  is  the  same  as  the 
French  Normal  Diapason,  from  which  indeed  it  is 
taken.  Assuming  this  as  our  standard,  we  have 
the  following  frequencies  for  the  A  throughout  the 
compass  of  the  piano,  beginning  at  the  lowest : 


A-, 

-  27.1875 

A 

—  54.375 

Ai 

-  108.75 

A. 

=  217.5 

A3 

—  435 

A, 

-  870 

A5 

-1740 

A« 

-3480 

The  piano's  scale  in  equal  temperament.  With 
the  above  figures  as  our  standard  of  measurement, 
and  multiplying  for  each  semitone  upwards  by  the 


Temperament.  77 

equal  semitone  ratio,  we  get  the  table  on  the  next 
page,  showing  the  complete  range  of  frequencies 
for  the  entire  88  notes  of  the  piano.^ 

Object  of  the  Table.  My  object  in  setting  forth 
this  Table  is  not  to  confuse  the  student  but  to 
enable  him  to  see  how  a  system  of  tuning  in  Equal 
Temperament  may  easily  be  worked  out;  one  far 
simpler  and  considerably  more  likely  to  lead  to 
correct  practice  than  any  other  based  on  guess. 
The  Table  is  the  preliminary  essential  in  the  argu- 
ment now  to  be  set  forth. 

By  examining  the  Table  we  observe  that  if  any 
column  be  taken,  the  figures  from  top  to  bottom 
thereof  represent  the  progression  of  frequencies 
in  the  sounds  of  an  ascending  octave.  All  columns 
to  right  of  any  such  column  are  ascending  octaves 
and  all  columns  to  the  left  are  descending  octaves. 
From  column  to  column  we  may  proceed  by  either 
multiplying  or  dividing  by  2  at  each  column. 
The  octave  interval  is  pure  and  the  others  are 

1  In  reality  the  names  used  for  the  tones  in  the  equal  tem- 
pered scale  are  incorrect,  since  they  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
pure  diatonic  scale.  For  purposes  of  convenience  we  continue  to 
say  C,  B  flat,  G  sharp  and  so  on,  whereas  it  would  be  more  ac- 
curate simply  to  number  the  septave  C  to  B  as  1  to  12.  How- 
ever, seeing  the  musical  notation  still  sticks  to  the  old  key-sys- 
tem, though  this  no  longer  means  anything  in  point  of  char- 
acter, the  old  names  are  respected  in  the  table,  the  sharps  and 
flats  being  noted  as  coinciding. 


(^ 


93 

o 

.>* 

• 00 

; •    •  eo 

4) 

> 

o 

o 

•      •      .(MOO'*<M-<*<0000'*i»      • 
■      ■      ■00(MCOO«0(>aOOOCOODO      ■ 

> 

o 

■    ■    'Tiicoi— locor-icoocgococa     ; 
;    ;    ;oo^(Mco<ro-*io<»t~ooffli    | 

o 
O 

...                                         o             • 

•      •     •  CO  O  U5  rH  CO  CD  in  O  O  O  CO  ■*.     • 

■     ■     ■  t--^  cc  o  in  ^'  o  i-<  in  i-H  o  .-H  «o    | 

.      .      .  1— 1  Tf  CO  »-i  lO  Oi  «>  1^  (M  1-^  <M  1^      . 

ininincoocDt-t^QOcooiO 

■D 
o 

o 

•  •    •  in                                      o 

•  ■     •coooiinoscot^ininC'CCOJ    • 

■  ■     'co-^ot^ininint-^oinooo    ' 

■  ■      'inir^CSOtN-^COOCi— cfOtoQO      . 

o 

.     .     .  OJ                                              o 

•   ■■     •coOr-;t--oieqoqi>-c<]in'^i-;     ■ 

;    ■    ;  ffi  t-^  in  CO  cj  oi  (m'  cc  in  i~-^  o  'i^     " 
(McoTjHincDt^oooiO^cc-*     ■ 

i-lrHr-(i-HnHr-<>-H,-l<MiM(M(M 

o 

o 

■    •     -cooininin           m      m       in- 
•     •     •  .-H  lo  iq  GO  Tj^  CO  Tj;  CO  «5 1--  (>i  o     • 
;     ;     ■  •>*'  CO  oj  CO  F-H  !»  ^'  (ffl  oq  CO  in  (m'     ; 

COCOt^t-COOOOCiOO^tN 

i-H    1— 1   .— 1    1— 1 

c 

Octave 

•  •    •  CO  in  t--  (M  t^  in      c-1      t- 

•  •       •  O  l?I  C<1  ■^_  t--;  >-;  I--;  M;  CO  CO  CO  o       • 

■     ■     ■  c^i  -t  CD  co"  o  co'  in"  00  I-H  -+  t-I  »-i     ; 
cocococoTtiT»<-<*'<tiin»nincD 

Sub 
Octave 

00               

r-HCoin 

oi  oi  CO 

(V 

B 

78 


Temperament. 


79 


worked  out  on  the  equal  semitone  system  as  ex- 
plained. 

Comparison  of  Intonations.  Before  undertak- 
ing to  show  how  tuning  in  Equal  Temperament 
may  most  easily  be  performed,  I  shall  give  here  a 
comparison,  for  the  student's  benefit,  of  three  pure 
major  diatonic  scales  built  on  two  of  the  tempered 
tone  degrees  taken  from  Table  I.^  The  first  scale 
is  the  tempered  scale,  the  second  is  a  pure  diatonic 


TABLE  II.  COMPARATIVE  FREQUENCES  OP  TEMPERED  SCALE 

AND  THREE  DIATONIC  MAJOR  SCALES  TAKEN  ON 

1ST,  2ND,  AND  3RD  CHROMATIC  TEMPERED 

DEGREES  OP  TEMPERED  SCALE 

Pure    Diatonic  Pure    Diatonic    Pure    Diatonic 
C  Scale  D  Scale  Dp  Scale 

(Major)  (Major)  (Major) 

Cj    ....258.65  

Dj,    ....  290.2      Dp    ....  274.00 

D    290.98  

E    326.47    EJJ     ....  308.25 

E    323.3  

F    344.8  FJf    362.75    F     342.5 

G    386.93    G>     365.33 

G    387.97  

A    435.3      Ap     ....411.00 

A    431.08  

B    483.60    Bl?     456.66 

B    484.97  

O3 517.3  C    513.75 

CJf.,     ...544.12    Dl>     548.00 


Equal  Tempered 

C  Scale 

( Chromatic ) 

c, 

.   >  • 

..258.65 

CJ- 

-Dl> 

..274.00 

D 

..290.2 

DS- 

-E^ 

..307.5 

E 

..325.9 

F 

. .345  3 

F#- 

-GJJ 

..365.7 

G 

..387.5 

G#- 

-AP 

..410.5 

A 

..435. 

A#- 

-Bi> 

..460.8 

B 

..488.2 

0, 

.  .517.3 

c#- 

-Dl> 

..548. 

D 

..580. 

D, 


.580. 


1  The  minor  scale  has  not  been  considered  because  its  difference 
from  the  major  is  merely  in  the  detail  of  intervals.  The  argu- 
ments already  made  apply  with  equal  force  to  the  minor  scale. 
See  supra.  Chap.  I, 


80  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

major  scale  built  on  the  same  Cg  =  258.65,  tlie  sec- 
ond in  a  pure  major  diatonic  scale  built  on  the  tem- 
pered major  second  to  C  (D),  and  the  third  a 
pure  diatonic  major  built  on  the  tempered  D  flat. 
The  pure  diatonic  scales  are  worked  out  from  each 
on  the  basis  of  the  ratios  of  the  diatonic  scale 
major  {supra  Chapter  I) ;  and  the  object  of  the 
comparison  is  simply  to  show  what  effect  the 
Equal  Temperament  has  on  purity  of  intonation. 

Advantages  of  Equal  Temperament.  These 
tables  show  clearly  some  of  the  peculiar  defects 
of  the  Equal  Temperament;  but  they  show  also 
some  of  its  peculiar  advantages.  For  it  will  be 
seen  that  at  the  cost  of  some  perceptible  disso- 
nances in  certain  intervals — dissonances  which  we 
shall  shortly  calculate  definitely — we  gain  the  abil- 
ity to  perform  music  in  all  tonalities,  by  aid  of  the 
traditional  12-note  key-board. 

Disadvantages  of  Equal  Temperament.  At  the 
same  time  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that 
in  reality  the  Equal  Temperament  is  a  comprom- 
ise, and  a  loose  compromise,  with  fact.  If  it  were 
not  for  the  organ  and  piano,  the  imperfections  of 
Equal  Temperament  would  be  more  easily  per- 
ceived;  but   the   dynamic   powers   and   immense 


Temperament.  81 

harmonic  resources  of  these  two  instruments  have 
endeared  them  to  musicians  and  have  concealed 
the  roughness  of  their  intonation.  No  one  who 
has  read  the  previous  chapter  and  understands 
how  to  listen  for  beats,  however,  can  long  endure 
the  intonation  of  the  organ  on  such  intervals  as 
minor  thirds.  The  sustained  tones  of  that  instru- 
ment bring  out  beats  very  clearly  and  produce 
a  generally  distressing  effect  for  delicate  ears. 
Of  course,  the  truth  is  that  most  of  us  are  so  used 
to  tempered  intonation  that  we  recognize  nothing 
else  and  know  of  no  other  possibility.  Yet  the 
fact  remains  that  whoever  has  heard  one  of  the 
few  experimental  key-board  instruments  that  have 
been  constructed  to  play  in  pure  intonation  has 
been  entranced  with  the  sweetness  of  music  thus 
played.  It  is  far  more  beautiful  than  tempered 
intonation  and  in  fact  seems  to  impart  to  the  music 
of  these  instruments  a  new  sweetness  and  concord. 
So  long,  of  course,  as  the  manufacture  of  pianos 
and  organs  is  stressed  rather  on  its  industrial 
than  on  its  artistic  side  we  shall  probably  have  to 
remain  content  with  Equal  Temperament.  But  it 
might  as  well  be  observed  that  if  the  piano  and 
organ  were  out  of  the  way,  music  throughout  the 


82  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

world  would  be  on  some  basis  of  tuning  other  than 
Equal  Temperament  within  ten  years. ^ 

Meanwhile  we  must  be  content  to  tune  in  Equal 
Temperament  as  well  as  we  can,  knowing  that 
when  such  work  is  well  done  it  is  very  satisfactory 
and  serves  well  the  requirements  of  modern  music 
and  modern  musicians. 

Meantone  Temperament.  Before  going  on  to 
consider  the  method  of  tuning  in  Equal  Tempera- 
ment, however,  I  should  like  to  mention  the  imme- 
diate predecessor  of  the  Equal  Temperament ;  the 
famous  Meantone  Temperament,  which  flourished 
from  the  16th  to  the  early  part  of  the  19th  century 
and  may  be  occasionally  found  to-day  on  organs 
in  obscure  European  villages.  This  system  con- 
sists in  tuning  a  circle  of  fifths  equally  flat,  in 
such  a  way  as  to  leave  all  the  thirds  major  nearly 
pure.  In  order,  however,  to  be  used  for  all  re- 
quired keys,  it  is  necessary  to  have  extra  key- 
levers,  for  the  flats  and  sharps  of  adjacent  tones 
are  not  identical.  For  perfect  performance  in  all 
tonalities,  not  less  than  27  tones  to  the  octave  are 

iThe  reader  who  doubts  this  miglit  consult  Ellis  (App.  20  to 
Helmholtz),  Helmholtz,  chapter  16,  Perronet  Tliompson,  "Theory 
and  Practice  of  Just  Intonation,"  and  Zahm,  "Sound  and  Music." 
My  own  book,  "Tlioory  and  Practice  of  Pianoforte  Buildin<^,"  con- 
tains a  close  analysis  of  the  requirements  of  Just   Intonation, 


Temperament.  83 

required,  but  tlie  greater  number  of  tonalities  can 
be  used  with  16  keys  to  the  octave ;  the  additional 
tones  being  for  D  flat,  E  flat,  A  flat  and  B  flat. 
The  ordinary  12-tone  key-board  would  give,  of 
course,  starting  from  C,  only  the  circle  of  Fifths, 
which  when  transposed  to  the  same  octave  result 
in  the  following  scale : 

C,  C#,  D,  D#,  E,  F,  F#,  G,  Gj,  A,  Ajf,  B. 

Unfortunately,  in  this  temperament,  C#  will  not 
do  for  D  flat,  D#  for  E  flat,  G#  for  A  flat  or  A# 
for  B  flat.  These  tones  of  course  have  to  be  incor- 
porated somehow  and  in  some  18th  century  organs 
were  built  into  the  manual  by  dividing  up  some 
of  the  black  keys,  which  were  cut  across  the  mid- 
dle with  the  back  half  slightly  raised  above  the 
front.  The  mean  tone  system  gives  a  ''sweet" 
and  harmonious  effect  for  nearly  all  keys,  with 
16  tones  to  the  octave,  although  of  course  this  num- 
ber still  lacks  11  tones  to  make  it  quite  adequate. 
However,  even  with  12  tones  to  the  octave,  an  ex- 
periment in  meantone  temperament  can  be  tried, 
and  will  sound  veiy  attractive  so  long  as  one  keeps 
within  the  range  of  keys  allowable.  To  make  the 
best  of  the  key-board  we  have,  the  following 
method  may  be  tried.     Start  with  C  and  tune  the 


84  Modem  Piano  Tuning. 

major  third  C — E  perfect.  Then  tune  the  fifths 
from  C  round  to  E  by  Fifths  and  Octaves,  equally 
flat,  testing  until  the  right  degree  of  flatness  is  ob- 
tained. All  other  notes  can  be  had  by  tuning  pure 
major  Thirds  and  pure  Octaves.  By  this  system 
it  is  possible  to  play  in  the  keys  of  B  flat,  F,  C,  D 
and  A  major,  and  G,  D,  and  A  minor.  The  reason, 
of  course,  is  as  stated  below.  This  is  a  very  use- 
ful experiment  and  if  tried  out  carefully  will  en- 
able the  student  to  play  old  music  in  the  tuning  for 
which  it  was  intended;  an  experience  sometimes 
most  illuminating  and  delightful.^ 

The  ''Beat"  System.  I  have  mentioned  these 
things  because  I  am  anxious  to  have  the  student 
understand  that  the  Equal  Temperament  is  not 
the  only  possible  system  of  tuning.  But  to  get 
now  definitely  to  the  method  of  tuning  in  Equal 
Temperament,  which  is  the  system  which  the  tuner 
to-day  uses  universally,  let  us  see  what  is  the 
nature  of  our  problem. 

The  Table  of  frequencies  (Table  I)  suggests  the 
method  we  shall  use.    We  know  ^  that  beats  afford 

1  The  student  might  consult  the  extremely  useful  and  interest- 
ing article,  "Temperament,"  by  James  Lecky,  in  Grove's  "Diction- 
ary of  Music  and  Musicians." 

2  Supra,  Chapter  II. 


Temperament.  85 

us  a  simple  and  accurate  way  of  judging  the  devia- 
tion from  consonance  of  one  tone  sounded  with  an- 
other. Since  we  cannot  trust  the  unaided  ear  to 
tune  successively  a  series  of  equal  tempered  semi- 
tones, we  make  use  of  the  method  of  comparing 
one  tone  with  another.  Thus  we  have  only  to  as- 
certain the  number  of  beats  that  are  produced  by 
the  members  of  various  intervals  in  equal  tem- 
perament, beating  against  each  other,  and  then  to 
tune  these  intervals  by  counting  their  beats. 

Beats  arise  between  coincident  partial  tones  and 
therefore  if  we  lay  out  a  series  of  intervals  from 
some  given  standard  tone  and  calculate  the  co- 
incident partial  tones  in  each,  we  can  by  subtrac- 
tion find  out  how  many  beats  there  are  heard  when 
that  interval  is  rightly  tempered.^  Experience 
shows  that  it  is  easiest  to  tune  by  Octaves,  Fifths 
and  Fourths;  by  Fifths  and  Fourths  for  the  Oc- 
tave of  tones,  usually  Fg — F3,  chosen  for  the 
** bearings"  or  foundation  work  and  by  Octaves  up 
and  down  thereafter.  The  other  intervals  in- 
volved are  best  used  for  testing  the  correctness 
of  the  work  as  it  proceeds.     Such  testing  is  best 

1  Compare  Chapter  II,  "Coincident  Partials,"  to  find  what  par- 
tials  coincide  in  any  interval. 


86  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

done  by  means  of  major  and  minor  Thirds  and 
major  and  minor  Sixths,  whose  rates  of  beating  in 
equal  temperament  the  tuner  must  therefore  know. 

Beats  in  Equal  Tempered  Intervals.  The  fol- 
lowing Table  (Table  III)  gives  the  number  of  beats 
per  second  in  the  ascending  minor  Thirds,  major 
Thirds,  Fourths,  Fifths,  minor  Sixths  and  major 
Sixths  from  each  degree  of  the  equal  tempered 
scale  between  Co  and  C^  inclusive.  The  rates  are, 
for  purposes  of  convenience,  made  correct  only 
within  .5  vibrations  per  second.  In  other  words, 
where  an  accurate  calculation  would  show  any 
beat-rate  as  some  whole  number  plus  a  decimal 
greater  than  .5,  the  rate  has  been  made  the  next 
whole  nuinber.  For  instance,  19.73  is  counted  as 
20;  while  the  same  course  has  been  adopted  for 
rates  where  the  decimal  correctly  is  less  than  .5. 
For  instance,  9.31  is  made  to  read  9.5.  On  this 
plan  the  error  may  be  less  than  .1  or  more  than  .4 
vibrations  per  second.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  the 
tuner  will  find  his  powers  extended  to  the  utmost 
in  estimating  the  beat-rates  of  Fourths  and  Fifths 
at  the  figures  given,  and  with  this  relatively  large 
error,  it  has  been  thought  better  to  adopt  this 
course. 

For  suggestions  as  to  counting  beats  and  other 


o  • 


03  ;^ 


CO  lO 


0>rtOC»00»0  0»00»OOOiOOO      . 

"dcdt-^t^t^QooooJmoo'i-HiM'cJcc'^    • 

pH  f—t  rH  r-l  I— t  rH   i-H 

o  o  lo  o  >c  o  >rt  »o  c  o  >c  lo  »o  ic  ire  <c  ic 
Gc  ci  oi  o  o  >-H  ■-<  oi  CO  Tt-  •*'  ic  o  t-^  c/i  c  o 


00  lO 

«5  00 


CO  (M 


>n  o  o  w  ic  o  >o  1"^  c  >c  o  in  c  lo  c;  c  c  o 
Tf  >«  lO  in  m  <»  o  «5 1>- 1>;  oc  cc  c".  c:  c  I-;  e-i  (N 


ai  O 


ooinoiooiaoioooooiooococo 

CO  CO  CO  t>;  t-  CD  00  C5  C:  O  O  ^  OJ  (M  CO  Tj<  IC  O  t^  CO 

-*  CO i-h'  ^  r-I  i-H  ,-;,-;  i-H  r-J  r-!  ^  i-H 

CO  •* 


lO  -* 


io_>-<ic      lo       inirt      lo      loio  lOin 

inincdcocdt-^t-^xodcJooO'-<'-Hc4co-^Tt<ioco 


is 


O  ic 


l« 


lO 


IC 


lO 


lo  m 


lO 


t^t—  OOOOOi0500'-i(N(MCO-^i.'5COt~CCCii— iF-HcaCO 

COIC  f-li-lr-l^i— l,-l>-l,-l^r-Hrtl-lCg(NC<l<M 

IC  CO 


d 
a) 

S 


coOl-^^-;0<qco^-(^alftTt;r^coo(^5»nc5eol>;lq^qOoq(^^eo_ 
o  t~^  lo  CO  e4  (N  N  CO  lo  t^  o  T)<  oo  TjJ  o  (--•  lO  lO  lo  1--^  o  ic  o  oc  1^- 

(NCOT)HmcOt^COOOi— <C0Tt<l0t--C;O(M'^C0Q0i— iCOCCCO'-< 
I— l,-(rt,— (^,-l>-ii— i(N(MlM(5qCNC<l(MCOCOeOeOCO'*"^Tt"'*lO 


o 

^2; 


0.2 


^ 


43    ^ 
u  bo 

a 


o  •  xv  ; xi.  .  :x^  .x^  . x\  :  .x\  i^^  .  .j=^  .x^  --^ 

O     -Q     -H     •     -O     •<)     -PQ     .     -Q     -W     ■     -O     ■<     •« 

.    ■      :    :    I  ■  •  I  ■  I  :  :  I  •  I    : 


87 


88  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

practical  matters  of  the  same  sort  the  following 
chapters  should  be  consulted.^ 

Use  of  the  Table.  I  do  not  propose  that  the 
tuner  shall  try  to  count  accurately  the  beats  per 
second  enumerated  above;  at  least  immediately. 
But  the  special  use  of  the  Table  is  to  provide  a 
model  which  will  indicate  closely  enough  the  exact 
amount  of  impurity  in  each  interval  as  required 
for  equal  temperament.  This  impurity  is  meas- 
ured by  the  beat-rate  instead  of  by  first  showing 
what  the  ratios  of  impurity  should  be  and  then 
proposing  a  rough  approximation  thereto  to  be 
measured  by  tuning  ** about  so  flat"  or  "about  so 
sharp."  By  giving  definite  beat-rates  I  make  it 
possible,  as  the  next  chapter  will  show,  to  tune 
with  unusual  accuracy  after  a  reasonable  amount 
of  practice. 

The  immediate  point  is  that  the  tuner  should 

1  The  present  table  is  founded  on  the  comprehensive  and  ac- 
curate work  of  J.  C.  Miller  of  Lincoln,  Neb.,  U.  S.  A.,  an  eminent 
exponent  of  the  noble  art  of  tuning  and  a  worker  in  science  whose 
unselfish  labors  for  the  benefit  of  his  fellows  can  never  be  too 
much  admired.  Calculated  correct  to  six  places  of  decimals  and 
with  some  supplementary  matter,  the  Miller  tables  were  pub- 
lished in  The  Tuner's  Magazine  (Cincinnati),  for  December,  1914. 
A  less  elaborate  edition  was  published  correct  to  two  places  of 
decimals  in  the  Music  Trade  Review  (New  York)  during  1911, 
and  in  the  London  Music  Trades  Remew  (London),  1914.  Those 
who  desire  to  obtain  the  complete  figures  may  therefore  have  them 
by  consulting  the  publications  mentioned. 


Temperament.  89 

know  bow  many  beats  per  second  eacb  interval  in 
tbe  equal  temperament  scbeme  really  involves,  at 
standard  pitcb.  Knowing  tbis  be  knows  wbat  be 
ougbt  to  do ;  and  if  be  can  learn  wbat  be  ougbt  to 
do,  tban  be  can  sooner  learn  bow  nearly  to  attain 
in  practice  to  tbat  ideal. 

Wide  and  Narroiv  Intervals.  It  only  remains 
to  note  wbicb  intervals  are  to  be  widened  and 
wbicb  narrowed  in  equal  temperament  tuning. 
Tbe  facts  are  simple  and  easily  understood.  Tbey 
may  be  stated  as  follows : 

An  ascending  series  of  twelve  Fiftbs  nominally 
coincides  witb  an  ascending  series  of  seven  Oc- 
taves from  tbe  same  notes.  Actually  tbe  Fifth 
series  comes  out  sbarper  tban  tbe  Octaves ;  in  tbe 
ratio  531441 :  524288.  Hence  equal  tempered 
Fiftbs  must  be  narrowed ;  tbe  amount  of  flatting  in 
eacb  case  being  determined  for  tbe  tuner  by  count- 
ing tbe  beats  as  set  fortb  in  Table  III. 

An  ascending  series  of  twelve  Fourtbs  nominally 
coincides  witb  an  ascending  series  of  five  Octaves 
from  tbe  same  note.  Actually  tbe  Fourtb  series 
comes  out  narrower  tban  tbe  Octaves  in  tbe  ratio 
144 :  192.  Hence,  equal  tempered  Fourtbs  must  be 
widened,  tbe  amount  in  eacb  case  being  deter- 
mined for  tbe  tuner  by  counting  tbe  beats. 


90  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

Although  we  tune  by  Fourths  and  Fifths  prefer- 
ably, it  is  necessary  to  understand  also  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  other  intervals.     Thus : 

Three  ascending  major  Thirds  nominally  coin- 
cide with  an  Octave  but  actually  are  short  in  the 
ratio  125 :  128.  Hence  the  major  Thirds  must  be 
widened  in  equal  temperament,  the  amount  thereof 
in  each  case  being  determined  as  in  Table  III. 

Four  ascending  minor  Thirds  nominally  coin- 
cide with  one  Octave  but  actually  exceed  it  in  the 
ratio  1296 :  1250.  Therefore  they  must  be  nar- 
rowed in  each  case,  the  amount  thereof  being  de- 
termined for  the  tuner  by  counting  the  beats  as 
set  forth  in  Table  III. 

In  the  same  way  we  find  that  in  Equal  Tempera- 
ment the  major  Sixths  are  all  wide  and  the  minor 
Sixths  narrow. 

Increase  in  heat-rate.  In  the  nature  of  the  case, 
the  beats  taking  their  origin  from  coincident  par- 
tials,  and  the  ratio  of  pitch  from  octave  to  octave 
being  1:2,  it  follows  that  the  number  of  beats  in 
any  interval  doubles  at  each  octave  ascending  and 
halves  at  each  octave  descending.  By  suitable 
multiplication  and  division  therefore,  the  beat-rate 
in  any  interval  in  any  octave  of  the  piano  may  be 
obtained  from  Table  III.    It  is  worth  while  pans- 


c . 

..F 

.11 

c,. 

..F, 

.22 

c 

..F, 

.45 

Ca. 

..Fa 

.90 

0,. 

..F, 

1.80 

a. 

..F, 

3.60 

CV 

..Fe 

7.20 

Temperament.  91 

ing  here  to  note  that  the  higher  octaves  comprise 
intervals  in  which  the  beats  are  very  rapid  and 
conversely  the  lower  octaves  have  very  slow  beat- 
ing intervals.  Thus  the  ascending  Fifth  C — ¥ 
beats  as  follows,  from  the  lowest  C  upwards : 

V.  p.  s. 
.1125  or  a  little  more  than  1  in  10  seconds, 
or  nearly  5  times  in  20  seconds, 
or  nearly  5  times  in  10  seconds, 
or  9  times  in  10  seconds. 

or  nearly  2  per  second  (18  times  in  10  seconds), 
or  nearly  4  times  per  second  (36  in  10  seconds). 
or  about  7  times  per  second  (72  in  10  seconds). 

The  Fourths  and  Fifths  Circle.  My  preferred 
method  of  tuning  is  by  a  circle  of  Fourths  and 
Fifths.  By  the  method  noted  on  pp.  108-109, 
Fourths  and  Fifths  are  alternated  in  such  a  way 
that  after  the  first  descending  Fifth  has  been 
tuned,  every  note  to  he  tuned  is  flatted,  whether  it 
belong  to  a  Fourth  or  Fifth.  This  is  made  pos- 
sible by  taking  all  the  Fourths  descending  and  all 
the  Fifths  ascending,  whereby  Fourths  can  be 
expanded  and  Fifths  contracted  in  a  continuous 
process  of  flatting  each  note  in  turn;  as  will  at 
once  be  seen  by  glancing  at  the  table  mentioned 
above. ^ 

Practical  suggestions  for  tuning  this  circle  ac- 
cording to  the  beat-rate  system  will  be  found  in 

1  See  pp.  108-109.  ' 


92  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

the  next  chapter.  The  tones  are  taken  in  the 
octave  F2 — F3,  around  middle  C,  and  the  re- 
mainder are  tuned  by  octaves  up  and  down.  The 
circle  is  known  among  tuners  as  "the  bearings." 

A  note  on  the  Scientific  Method.  This  con- 
cludes all  that  it  is  necessary  to  say  about  the 
acoustical  foundation  of  the  system  universally 
employed  throughout  the  Occident  for  the  tuning 
of  musical  instruments.  The  practical  side  of  the 
art  is  treated  in  the  folloAving  chapter.  I  should 
not  wish  to  conclude  the  present  remarks,  however, 
without  pointing  out  that  I  have  treated  the  sub- 
ject fully  but  not  necessarily  obscurely.  In  point 
of  fact  one  cannot  explain  the  rationale  of  Equal 
Temperament  without  going  into  considerable  de- 
tail. If  the  reader  is  content  to  do  without  the 
explanations,  and  to  accept  Table  III  together 
with  the  following  chapter  at  their  face  value,  he 
may  skip  all  that  I  have  set  forth  in  previous  pages 
and  take  my  conclusions  as  stated.  But  if  he 
chooses  any  rapid  road  like  this  he  will  find  that 
rapid  roads  are  often  slippery,  and  he  will  miss 
the  satisfaction  which  comes  from  knowing  ivhy 
as  well  as  how. 

The  attentive  reader  will  discover  nothing  diffi- 
cult  in  the  method  adopted  here ;  and  the  practical 


Temperament.  93 

tuner  may  be  assured  that  the  system  of  count- 
ing beats  set  forth  in  this  and  following  chapters 
is  not  only  quite  practical  but  on  the  whole  easier 
than  any  other  with  which  I  am  at  present  ac- 
quainted, and  which  comes  within  the  limited 
range  of  practical  requirements.  As  for  accuracy, 
there  is  no  comparison  between  this  and  any  sys- 
tem founded  on  less  exact  reasoning. 

A  Note  on  Intonations.  I  should  feel  that  this 
book  has  fulfilled  its  object  if  it  induces  some 
students  to  take  up  the  study  of  Intonation  in  gen- 
eral; by  which  I  mean  the  study  of  the  general 
problem  of  expressing  musical  scales  in  practical 
form.  The  Equal  Temperament  is  a  good  servant 
but  a  bad  master ;  and  although  the  practical  piano 
tuner  must,  in  present  conditions,  use  it  as  it 
stands,  he  cannot  divest  himself  of  a  certain 
amount  of  responsibility  in  the  matter  of  its  gen- 
eral approval.  For  after  all,  tuners  could  do 
something  to  prepare  the  world  for  a  better  sys- 
tem if  they  wished  to ;  and  if  they  knew  that  im- 
provement is  actually  possible.  What  we  need  is 
to  realize  that  the  Equal  Temperament  is  a  purely 
artificial  system  resting  upon  a  consent  gained 
rather  on  account  of  the  absolute  necessity  for  the 
piano  having  it  than  for  any  fundamental  musical 


94  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

reason.  To  get  sometliing  better  we  need  a 
method  which  will  either  (1)  allow  more  strings  to 
the  octave  or  (2)  will  give  us  a  mechanism  capable 
of  making  instant  changes  as  required  in  the  pitch 
of  given  strings,  so  that  modulation  may  be  as 
facile  as  it  is  now.^ 

Let  it  be  understood  however  that  Just  Intona- 
tion is  an  ideal  to  be  striven  for;  and  that  tuners 
should  by  all  means  make  it  their  business  to  ac- 
quaint themselves  with  the  beauty  and  sweetness 
of  pure  intervals,  if  only  to  remind  themselves 
that  these  really  exist. 

The  scope  of  the  present  volume  does  not  permit 
me  to  go  into  detail  as  to  experimental  instru- 
ments that  have  been  made  to  give  Just  or  nearly 
Just  Intonation,  but  I  wish  that  every  reader 
would  take  the  trouble  to  consult  the  admirable 
discussion  of  this  most  interesting  subject  to  be 
found  in  Ellis '  20th  Appendix  to  the  3rd  English 
edition  of  Helmholtz.  At  the  end  of  this  book  I 
have  ventured  to  give  a  short  list  of  works  which 
the  student  who  is  desirous  of  pursuing  his  ac- 
coustical  and  musical  studies  further,  may  con- 
sult to  his  advantage. 

1  Ono  such  system  was  worked  (by  Dr.  TTapaman  of  Cincinnati) 
some  years  ago,  and  one  may  hope  that  it  may  yet  be  heard  of  in 
some  commercial  practicable  form. 


Chapter  IV. 

PRACTICAL    TUNING   IN    EQUAL    TEMPERAMENT. 

After  all  tlie  discussion  that  has  gone  before,  we 
have  now  to  see  how  we  may  put  our  ideas  into 
practice.  It  is  plain  from  what  has  been  already 
said  that  Equal  Temperament  is  a  perfectly  simple 
system  and  one  admirably  adapted  to  present 
ideas  and  methods  in  musical  composition  and 
the  making  of  musical  instruments.  Until  there 
comes  that  change  in  public  taste  which  demands 
something  finer,  we  shall  have  tempered  pianos, 
tempered  orchestras  and  tempered  intonation  gen- 
erally; with  our  ears  more  and  more  becoming 
used  to  tempered  sounds  and  unused  to  pure 
sounds.  It  is  therefore  highly  important  not  only 
that  the  tuner  should  be  thoroughly  capable  of  do- 
ing the  very  best  work  in  temperament  that  can  be 
done,  but  also  that  he  should  make  it  his  business 
to  realize  every  day  and  every  hour  that  the  work 
he  is  doing  is  in  reality  a  compromise  with  truth ; 

95 


96  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

necessary  no  doubt,  but  a  compromise  just  the 
same ;  and  one  which  exists  solely  because  instru- 
ments, musicians,  and  the  public  alike  are  un- 
ready for  anything  better. 

Recognising  Just  Sounds.  In  the  circumstances 
and  considering  the  inherent  difficulty  of  temper- 
ing accurately  by  estimation  of  ear,  I  most  ear- 
nestly advise  every  student  to  practice  the  tuning 
of  pure  Fifths,  Fourths,  and  Thirds.  Unisons 
and  octaves  must  be  tuned  pure  anyhow,  but  most 
tuners,  in  common  with  virtually  everybody  else, 
are  familiar  only  with  the  tempered  form  of  the 
other  intervals  and  never  dream  of  asking  how 
they  sound  when  purely  intoned.  But  in  order  to 
recognize  with  any  sort  of  accuracy  the  number  of 
beats  per  second  that  a  tempered  interval  is  gener- 
ating, it  is  absolutely  essential  that  one  should  be 
acquainted  with  the  true  condition  of  that  inter- 
val ;  familiar  with  its  sound  when  evoked  in  purity. 
Thus  I  would  counsel  every  reader  of  this  book  to 
form  the  habit  of  always  tuning  all  intervals  pure 
and  hearing  them  satisfactorily  as  such,  before  at- 
tempting to  temper  them ;  and  also  to  get  into  the 
equally  valuable  habit  of  tuning,  for  his  own 
amusement  and  satisfaction,  series  of  pure  chords 
on  the  piano ;  which  of  course  can  be  done,  so  as  to 


Practical  Tuning  in  Equal  Temperament.     97 

be  satisfactory  for  one  tonality  and  even  capable 
of  being  played  in  to  that  extent. 

Measure  of  Purity.  The  measure  of  purity  is 
the  absence  of  beats.  If  intervals  whose  ratios 
of  frequency  are  such  as  to  avoid  alternation  in 
phase-relations  ^  are  tuned  on  any  instrument  with 
absolute  accuracy,  there  will  be  no  beats  between 
them.  (I  here  purposely  have  omitted  reference 
to  the  ''beat-tones,"  otherwise  known  as  resultant 
or  combinational  tones,  which  are  in  reality  gen- 
erated by  very  rapidly  moving  beats  from  high 
coincident  partials  in  intervals  that  otherwise 
would  have  no  beats ;  but  these  beat-tones  are  true 
musical  sounds  and  for  the  tuner's  purpose  need 
not  be  considered  in  the  present  discussion ;  espe- 
cially as  they  are  almost  imperceptible  on  the 
piano. ^)  The  fact,  then,  that  no  beats  are  heard 
is  a  test  quite  accurate ;  and  the  work  of  tuning  is 
immensely  facilitated  if  the  tuner  is  able  to  assure 
himself  when  a  condition  of  beatlessness  exists,  in- 
stead of  always  being  vague  on  this  point. 

1  See  supra,  Chapter  II. 

2  Tuners  whose  ears  have  attained  a  sufficient  degree  of  delicacy, 
and  who  are  scientific  enough  to  wish  to  go  into  the  matter,  may 
consult  Zahm,  "Sound  and  Music,"  Tyndall  "On  Sound,"  Helm- 
holtz,  "Sensations  of  Tone."  Beat-tones,  as  described  best  perhaps 
by  Koenig  (quoted  in  Zahm),  do  of  course  afford  a  test  of  the 
absolute  purity  of  an  interval. 


98  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

Unison  Tuning.  The  acquirement  of  a  culti- 
vated ear  for  purity  of  interval  cannot  better  be 
begun  than  by  learning  to  tune  unisons  correctly. 
Considering  also  that  tuning  of  unisons  comprises 
about  two-thirds  of  the  work  of  tuning  a  piano, 
since  most  of  the  tones  are  triple,  and  nearly  all 
the  rest  double,  strung,  it  will  be  seen  that  this  im- 
portant part  of  the  tuner's  work  deserves  the  most 
careful  attention.  It  is  fortunate  that  the  unison 
is  the  simplest  of  intervals  to  comprehend  and  to 
appreciate  aurally.  It  is  requisite  in  beginning 
the  study  of  tuning  to  ascertain  with  complete  cer- 
tainty the  peculiarities  of  beats.  Two  tuning 
forks  tuned  in  unison  and  with  one  then  slightly 
loaded  with  a  minute  piece  of  wax,  or  other  mater- 
ial, afford  a  simple  and  easy  experiment  in  beat 
production.^  It  will  be  useful  to  begin  by  making 
such  an  experiment  and  listening  carefully  to  the 
beats  until  the  peculiar  rise  and  fall  of  the  sound  is 
so  plain  that  it  can  never  again  be  mistaken.  The 
opposite  experiment,  made  by  removing  the  load 
and  returning  the  forks  to  complete  unison,  pre- 
sents the  sound  of  a  perfect  unison,  with  complete 
absence  of  beats.     It  is  also,  by  the  way,  interest- 

iCf.  Chapter  II. 


Practical  Tuning  in  Equal  Temperament,     99 

ing  as  providing  an  almost  perfect  form  of  simple 
vibration,  without  partials. 

To  tune  two  piano  strings  in  unison  is  not  a  very 
difficult  task  if  it  be  gone  about  rightly.  In  the 
first  place,  it  is  well  to  listen  carefully  to  the  work 
of  a  professional  tuner,  when  the  opportunity  oc- 
curs, with  the  object  of  noting  by  ear  how  he  ad- 
justs his  unisons.  A  little  practice  will  enable  one 
to  hear  instantly  the  difference  between  the  beat- 
ing tone  of  two  strings  which  are  out  of  tune  with 
each  other  and  the  pure  continuous  beatless  sensa- 
tion of  tone  developed  when  the  unison  is  per- 
fected. Having  once  obtained  some  facility  in 
thus  cultivating  the  hearing,  the  student  may  ob- 
tain a  tuning  hammer  and  attempt  to  do  some  prac- 
tical adjustment  of  unisons. 

Argument  concerning  the  manipulation  of  the 
hammer  would  at  this  stage  be  out  of  place,  I  feel, 
for  it  would  tend  rather  to  confuse  than  to  assist 
the  student.^  Let  me  then  simply  say  that  the 
tuning  hammer  is  to  be  placed  on  a  tuning-pin 
corresponding  with  one  string  of  a  triple  unison. 
Let  one  string  of  the  triple  unison  be  damped  off, 
leaving  two  to  sound  when  the  piano  digital  is 

1  But  see  the  next  chapter. 


100  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

struck.  If  the  piano  has  not  been  tuned  recently 
the  student  will  undoubtedly  hear  beats;  and  if 
these  are  not  distinct  or  frequent  enough,  let  the 
tension  on  the  string  be  relaxed  by  turning  the 
pin  slightly  toward  the  left  or  bass  end  of  the 
piano.  Now,  let  the  reverse  operation  be  under- 
taken, and  the  hammer  turned  back  towards  the 
operator,  thus  gradually  tightening  up  the  string 
again.  As  this^  is  done  it  will  be  observed,  if  the 
digital  is  repeatedly  struck,  that  the  beats,  which 
at  first  we  may  suppose  to  have  been  quite  fre- 
quent, become  slower  and  slower,  until  if  the  string 
be  rightly  tuned,  they  disappear  altogether,  leav- 
ing a  pure  continuous  uninterrupted  sound. 

Practice.  In  beginning  the  work  of  learning 
to  tune  pianos,  it  is  advisable  to  practice  for  some 
time  in  bursts  of  from  fifteen  to  thirty  minutes 
each,  on  simple  adjustment  of  unisons.  The 
manipulation  of  the  hammer,  of  which  I  speak  at 
length  in  the  next  chapter,  now,  of  course,  begins 
to  claim  attention ;  but  for  the  present  it  is  enough 
to  say  that  the  pin  must  be  turned  without  wrench- 
ing its  outer  end  and  without  pulling  downwards 
on  it.  It  is  advisable  to  rest  the  arm  and  keep  the 
handle  of  the  tuning  hammer  nearly  vertical. 

It  will  then  be  advisable  to  undertake  settling 


Practical  Tuning  in  Equal  Temperament.     101 

the  unisons  of  an  entire  piano,  and  not  until  this 
has  been  accomplished  is  the  student  fit  to  take  the 
next  step.  It  will  be  observed  that  whereas  the 
middle  strings  afford  a  comparatively  simple  task, 
those  of  very  low  and  very  high  frequencies  alike 
are  more  and  more  elusive;  and  careful  practice 
and  listening  are  required  before  they  can  be  mas- 
tered. The  measure  of  purity,  be  it  remembered, 
is  absence  of  beats;  and  so  long  as  beats  can  be 
heard  the  unison  is  not  pure. 

Octave  Tuning.  The  Octave  is  the  unison 
transposed.  Hence  Octave  tuning  is  just  as  sim- 
ple as  unison  tuning,  in  principle,  and  almost  the 
same  in  detail.  The  beats  arising  in  a  two-string 
unison  are  between  the  fundamentals  of  two 
sounds  whilst  in  an  Octave  the  beats  are  between 
the  1st  partial  of  the  higher  and  the  2nd  of  the 
lower ;  the  Octave  proportion  being  1 : 2  and  the 
coincident  partials  therefore  being  Nos,  2  and  1 
respectively.^  Thus  throughout  the  entire  middle 
portion  of  the  piano  anyhow,  there  will  be  very 
little  difficulty  in  tuning  Octaves,  once  the  student 
has  learned  to  adjust  the  unisons  accurately,  for 
exactly  the  same  beats  are  heard  and  the  same 
blending  of  the  beats  into  a  condition  of  beatless- 

i  Cf.  Chapter  II,  pp.  67-68. 


102  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

ness,  as  the  Octave  is  perfected,  until  a  perfect 
,  Octave  is  almost  as  complete  a  blend  of  sound  as 
an  unison. 

Exact  Tests.  In  certain  regions  of  the  Piano 
it  is  quite  impossible  to  obtain  certainty  of  Octave 
tuning  merely  by  estimating  the  extinction  of  beats 
between  the  two  members  of  the  interval.  In 
the  low  bass  particularly,  the  coarseness  of  the 
strings  and  the  almost  inevitable  impurity  of  their 
intonation  lead  to  the  generation  of  all  kinds  of 
false  beats  which  confuse  the  student  and  are  a 
source  of  annoyance  and  inaccuracy  even  to  the 
expert.  The  student  should  of  course  practice 
tuning  Octaves  throughout  the  entire  compass,  but 
he  will  find  that  in  the  low  bass  he  must  have  some 
test  for  accuracy  better  than  afforded  by  aural 
comparison  of  the  two  members  of  the  interval. 
Fortunately,  other  tests  are  available,  and  each  is 
capable  of  giving  highly  correct  results. 

The  Octave  comprises  a  Fourth  and  a  Fifth  in 
succession.  A  Fourth  above  Co  runs  to  Fg  and  a 
Fifth  from  that  runs  from  Fo  to  C3.  If  now, 
whilst  tuning  the  octave  Co — C:j  (say)  we  sound 
the  Fourth  G^—F^  and  then  the  Fifth  Fg— C3,  and 
find  the  beats  in  the  Fourth  equal  in  number  to  the 
beats  in  the  Fifth,  the  Octave  is  tuned  accurately. 


Practical  Tuning  in  Equal  Temperament.     103 

This  is  so  because  all  Fourths  and  Fifths  in  Equal 
Temperament  are  distorted  slightly  so  that  the  co- 
incident partials  are  actually  a  little  distorted 
also.  In  the  present  case,  the  coincident  partial  is 
C4,  the  4th  partial  of  C2,  the  3rd  of  F2  and  the  2nd 
of  C3. 

The  first  octave  test  therefore  is  made  by  ascer- 
taining the  number  of  beats  between  the  Fourth 
above  the  lower  sound  and  comparing  these  with 
the  beats  in  the  Fifth  below  the  upper  sound. 
If  the  beats  are  the  same  in  number,  then  the  oc- 
tave is  perfect.  But,  if  the  test  is  made  between 
lower  Fifth  and  upper  Fourth,  then  the  upper 
Fourth  will  beat  twice  as  fast  as  the  lower  Fifth. 

Minor  3rd  and  major  6th.  For  the  lower  re- 
gions of  the  piano  especially,  but  useful  every- 
where, is  the  test  of  the  ascending  minor  Third 
and  descending  major  Sixth.  If  we  are  tuning, 
for  instance,  from  Co  to  C3,  we  try  the  minor  Third 
C2 — E  flato  and  note  its  beat-rate.  Then  we  try 
the  major  Sixth  E  flato — C3  and  try  its  beats.  If 
the  beats  in  the  two  cases  are  equal  in  rate,  then  the 
octave  is  tuned  accurately.  It  will  be  observed 
that  this  is  the  same  idea  set  forth  in  the  previous 
paragraph.  The  E  flat  is  the  common  tone,  and 
the  minor  Third  and  major  Sixth  are  complemen- 


104  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

tary.  The  coincident  partial  is  the  6th  of  C2,  the 
5th  of  E  flats  and  the  3rd  of  C^=G^.  But  if  the 
Sixth  be  the  lower  and  the  Third  the  upper,  com- 
plementary intervals  used,  the  Third  will  beat 
twice  as  fast  as  the  Sixth. 

Beat  rates  in  Thirds  and  Sixths.  It  is  well  to 
note  in  passing  that  as  shown  in  the  tables  in  Chap- 
ter III  (supra),  the  beats  in. Thirds  and  Sixths, 
major  and  minor,  are  considerably  faster  than  in 
Fourths  and  Fifths ;  and  the  student  after  tuning 
an  octave  may  profitably  examine  the  complemen- 
tary Thirds  and  Sixths  within  that  interval  for  the 
purpose  of  studying  their  beat  rates. 

The  Tenth  test.  A  Tenth  is  an  Octave  plus  a 
major  Third.  A  good  octave  test  is  to  be  found 
here  also  by  using  the  major  under-Third  and 
Tenth.  If  tuning  C2  to  C3,  test  by  the  major  un- 
der-Tliird  Co— A  flatj  as  compared  with  the  Tenth 
A  flati — C3.  The  coincident  partial  is  the  5th  of 
A  flatj,  the  4th  of  Co  and  the  2nd  of  C3,=:C4.  This 
test  is  useful  throughout  the  entire  compass  and 
especially  in  the  lower  registers. 

Observe  that  beat-rates,  as  shown  by  Table  III 
(Chapter  III),  vary  as  the  frequencies  of  their 
generators,  so  that  the  nearer  we  approach  the 
lower  bass,  the  slower  are  all  the  beat-rates.    In 


Practical  Tuning  in  Equal  Temperament.      105 

fact,  the  beat  of  the  Fourths  and  Fifths  cannot  be 
distinguished  at  all  in  the  lower  bass,  and  we  have 
to  depend  on  Thirds  and  Sixths,  It  is  very  im- 
portant of  course,  to  know  how  many  beats  in  a 
second  any  given  interval  should  have ;  and  Table 
III  supplies  this  requisite. 

Counting  Beats.  The  tuner,  for  practical  pur- 
poses, must  count  his  beats  by  mere  aural  estima- 
tion. The  result  is  never  perfectly  accurate.  It 
is,  however,  the  only  method  that  can  be  used  in 
practical  work,  and  the  method,  therefore,  that 
we  must  develop  to  the  highest  possible  degree  of 
excellence.  In  the  first  place  it  will  be  noted  that 
Table  III  (Chapter  III)  gives  the  beat-rates  ac- 
curate only  to  within  .5  of  a  beat  per  second.  This 
is  simply  because,  although  the  error  is  mathema- 
tically large,  the  human  ear,  at  least  with  the 
evanescent  tones  of  the  piano,  cannot  judge  any 
more  delicately,  and  even  then  needs  practice  and 
patience.  It  will  usually  be  found  that  for  ac- 
curate work  beat-rates  of  from  2  to  5  per  second 
are  most  easily  counted.  Above  this  is  difficult; 
below  it  is  equally  so.  Beats  of  less  than  1  per 
second  rate  are  hard  to  hear  and  keep  track  of. 
However,  the  tuner  may  accustom  himself  to  esti- 
mating beat-rates  by  one  or  two  simple  methods. 


106  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

■Seconds'  Watch.  Watchesi  are  usually  provided 
with  seconds'  hands  and  these  usually  make  four 
ticks  per  second.  By  listening  carefully  for  say 
ten  minutes  at  a  time,  the  student  can  soon  learn 
to  hear  accurately  a  beat-rate  of  4  per  second. 
But  the  precise  tick-rate  of  one's  own  watch  must 
be  accurately  determined. 

Pendulum  Clock.  Pendulum  clocks  of  the  large 
sort  often  have  very  slow  swinging  pendulums. 
These  sometimes  produce  one  complete  to  and  fro 
swing  (complete  vibration)  per  second. 

Pendulum.  Ellis  suggests  (App.  20  to  Helm- 
holtz)  ,  that  the  student  may  make  himself  a 
pendulum  from  a  piece  of  string  and  a  curtain 
ring,  with  provision  for  shortening  or  lengthening 
the  string  readily.  Now,  for  counting  during  any 
length  of  time,  as  for  instance  5  seconds,  which  is 
a  useful  unit  of  time  in  counting  beats  of  the 
piano,  we  may  arrange  the  length  of  the  string  as 
shown  below : 

Length  of  string 

from  ieginning  of  Complete  vihrationa 

vibrating  portion  {to   and  fro) 
to  middle  of  ring 

in  inches:  in  10  seconds      in  5  seconds 

O'/s     10                            5 

4%     15                              71/2 

27%6     6                            3 

It  is  important  to  note  the  manner  of  measuring,  as  above. 


Practical  Tuning  in  Equal  Temperament.      107 

These  three  beat  rates  are  very  important,  es- 
pecially the  first  and  third,  in  the  practical  work 
of  tuning. 

Other  methods  may  suggest  themselves  to  the 
student.  The  perforated  rotating  disk  to  be  found 
in  every  high  school  physical  laboratory  can  be 
used  also  to  give  series  of  taps  (by  holding  a  card 
against  a  circle  of  the  perforations  while  the  disk 
is  rotated),  of  any  required  speed.^ 

Of  course  the  point  is  that  the  tuner  ought  not 
to  trust  to  guess  work  but  should  try  to  knoiv  when 
he  hears  a  beat-rate  what  it  really  is.  He  can 
learn  to  do  this;  and  learn  easily.  By  watching 
and  counting  the  swings  of  a  pendulum  such  as 
that  described  above  he  can  soon  learn  to  feel 
the  rate  of  swing;  which  is  an  exceedingly  valu- 
able accomplishment  and  one  easy  to  acquire. 
Certainly,  it  is  impossible  without  some  such  train- 
ing ever  really  to  do  distinguished  work  in  the 
most  important  and  most  difficult  branch  of  tun- 

1  The  Metronome  may  likewise  be  used  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  beat-rate  required  is  expressed  in  terms  of  beats  per  minute, 
then  multiplied  by  2.  The  Metronome  is  set  at  the  resulting  figure, 
and  every  alternate  tick  only  is  counted.  Or  if  a  bell  is  fitted  to 
the  Metronome  and  set  to  sound  on  every  alternate  tick,  the  re- 
sult is  still  better.  Thus:  3  beats  in  5  seconds  =  36  beats  per 
minute.  Set  Metronome  at  72  and  make  bell  sound  on  alternate 
ticks.  The  rate  of  3  in  5  seconds  will  thus  be  given.  The  sug- 
gestion is  due  to  Mr.  August  Reisig  of  New  Orleans. 


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110  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

ing  pianos;  that  which  is  called  "laying  the  bear- 
ings," and  which  we  must  now  consider. 

Laying  the  Bearings.  The  scheme  already  laid 
out  (Chapter  III,  supra),  for  tuning  the  central  oc- 
tave in  Fourths  and  Fifths  forms  the  basis  of  the 
explanations  now  to  be  made :  Reproducing  this  in 
type  and  appending  the  beat-rate  as  ascertained 
for  each  interval  from  Table  III  and  the  frequency 
as  given  in  Table  I,  we  get  Table  IV,  pages  108-9. 

There  are  two  observations  to  be  made  imme- 
diately. The  first  is  that  although  the  Table 
shows  36  steps,  only  13  notes  are  actually  tuned, 
and  the  remaining  steps  show  tests  made  by  in- 
tervals and  chords  generated  during  the  progress 
of  the  tuning.  These  test  intervals  and  chords  are 
of  the  utmost  importance,  just  as  important  as 
any  other  element  of  the  work,  inasmuch  as  they 
afford  a  complete  measure  of  the  correctness  of 
the  tuner's  progress.  But  the  actual  tuning  is 
confined  to  the  series  of  Fourths  and  Fifths  shown. 

The  second  is  that  to  count  beats  at  something 
very  close  to  these  rates  is  not  impossible  by  any 
means.  I  counsel  the  student  to  realize  that  any 
definite  method  like  this  has  the  inestimable  ad- 
vantage of  being  founded  on  fact.  What  is  more 
to  the.  point,  such  a  method  leads  to  that  much 


Practical  Tuning  in  Equal  Temperament.     Ill 

closer  accuracy  which  should  distinguish  masters 
of  the  art. 

Variations  in  pitch  for  practical  tuning.  The 
figures  given  are  sufficiently  accurate  for  any  pitch 
between  C  258.65  and  C  264,  which  range  covers 
the  common  variations  as  found  in  modern  pianos. 
In  strict  fact,  any  rise  in  pitch  above  the  Inter- 
national C  258.65  involves  a  progressive  rise  in 
beat-rate.  But  the  amount  of  increase  is  too  small 
for  practical  purposes ;  usually  at  least. 

Importance  of  Accuracy.  Of  course  I  can- 
not too  strongly  urge  the  importance  of  accuracy, 
of  not  being  content  to  do  things  fairly  well  or 
even  reasonably  well;  but  of  insisting  to  the  ut- 
most upon  the  possibility  of  doing  ever  and  ever 
more  accurate,  more  scientific  and  more  complete, 
work.  Tables  III  and  IV  do  represent  the  ut- 
most in  accuracy,  probably;  and  the  figures  given 
in  these  Tables  can  be  attained  by  those  who  will 
practice  the  Art  of  Tuning  with  patient  devotion. 
The  Artist  will  attain  them.  May  every  reader  of 
this  book  earnestly  strive  for  that  perfection. 

Methods  of  Using  Tests.  The  test  Thirds  and 
Sixths,  and  the  test  triads  are  to  be  used  constantly 
throughout  the  work.  Observe  carefully  the  rise 
in  beat-rate  of  the  ascending  Thirds  and  Sixths. 


112  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

This  rise  must  be  accurately  measured.  It  will 
be  found,  of  course,  that  the  beat-rate  doubles  in 
each  octave  and  the  extreme  Thirds  should  show 
this  progress.  No  better  test  of  the  accuracy  of 
the  bearings  can  be  found.  It  is  not  sufficient  to 
* '  come  out  right, ' '  by  which  is  meant,  to  arrive  at 
the  last  step  and  find  the  final  octave  reasonably 
clear.  It  is  necessary  that  every  step  should  be 
right.  This  means  care,  patience,  study;  which 
lead  to  mastery. 

Tuning  from  the  Bearings.  From  the  Bearings 
the  tuning  proceeds  by  octaves  and  unisons  ac- 
cording to  the  methods  laid  down  and  explained 
in  the  earlier  part  of  this  chapter.  The  student  is 
again  warned  to  look  out  that  his  octave  tuning 
does  not  begin  to  slide  off  from  accuracy  by  the 
accumulation  of  imperceptible  into  intolerable  er- 
rors ;  and  to  this  end  the  constant  use  of  the  vari- 
ous tests  already  explained,  as  well  as  of  double 
octaves  and  triads,  is  recommended. 

Obtaining  required  Temperament  in  intervals. 
Lastly,  let  me  say  again  that  the  only  way  to  tune 
intervals  so  that  their  beat-rates  are  reasonably 
accurate  is  first  to  tune  them  pure  and  then  to 
make  the  necessary  correction  up  or  down.  It  is 
impossible  in  any  other  way  to  acquire  true  deli- 


Practical  Tuning  in  Equal  Temperaments.    113 

cacy  of  ear.  No  other  method  will  produce  the  re- 
quired results.  This  is  an  immensely  important 
truth  and  covers  one  of  the  most  neglected  ele- 
ments in  the  art.  The  rule  of  tuning  all  intervals 
pure  before  proceeding  to  temper,  is  essential ;  and 
the  student  ought  early  to  achieve  this  habit.  The 
mere  fact  that  Equal  Temperament  is  an  artificial 
mathematical  compromise,  should  in  itself  be  suf- 
ficient to  persuade  the  tuner  that  this  view  is 
sound,  especially  when  the  reasons  adduced  at 
the  beginning  of  this  chapter  are  recalled.  Until 
one  knows  practically  the  true  beauties  of  Pure 
Intonation,  the  almost  equally  strong  virtues  and 
vices  of  Equal  Temperament  will  in  neither  case 
be  duly  appreciated. 

Any  one  who  has  had  the  privilege  of  listening 
to  a  first-rate  string  quartet  or  to  a  really  good 
unaccompanied  chorus,  will  understand  why  pure 
intonation,  once  recognized,  is  ever  after  treas- 
ured in  memory. 


Chapter  V. 

MECHANICAL    TECHNIQUE    OF    TUNING. 

The  art  of  tuning  tlie  piano  comprises  two  dis- 
tinct and  separate  elements.  That  part  of  our 
education  as  tuners  which  relates  to  the  science  of 
the  art  has  already  been  discussed  in  full  in  the 
previous  chapters.  We  must  now  consider  what 
may  be  called  the  general  mechanical  technique  of 
the  art,  including  the  special  subject  of  the  tools 
required  and  their  manipulation. 

The  Raw  Material.  The  raw  material  with 
which  the  tuner  works  may  be  described  for  prac- 
tical purposes  as  consisting  of  the  string,  the 
wrest-pin  or  tuning-pin,  the  wrest-plank  or  pin- 
block,  and  the  tuning  hammer.  The  piano  action, 
the  digitals,  the  wedges  for  damping  strings,  and 
the  tuning-fork  may  alike  be  considered  for  the 
present,  as  accessory  to,  rather  than  as  part  of, 
the  essential  material.  Let  us  consider  these  in 
their  order. 

String  Conditions.    It  is  well  known,  of  course, 

114 


Mechanical  Technique  of  Tuning.        115 

that  the  pitch  of  a  string — that  is  to  say,  its  fre- 
quency of  vibration — varies  as  the  square  root  of 
its  tension.  Hence,  if  the  tension  be  increased, 
the  frequency  is  increased  likewise;  whilst  if  the 
tension  be  relaxed,  the  pitch  is  lowered.  Now,  the 
tension  of  a  string  is  increased  by  tightening  it  on 
its  pin ;  that  is  by  turning  the  pin  so  as  to  stretch 
the  string  more  tightly.  The  relaxation  of  tension 
is  achieved  in  precisely  the  opposite  way ;  that  is, 
by  releasing  the  string  somewhat. 

String  and  Pin.  The  piano  string  is  wound  so 
that  the  pin  lies,  as  seen  from  the  front,  to  its  right, 
on  an  upright  piano  and  to  its  left  on  a  grand.  But 
actually  the  positions  are  the  same,  and  the  differ- 
ence stated  is  due  to  the  different  position  from 
which  we  view  the  strings  on  an  upright  and  a 
grand  respectively.  It  would  be  better  to  say  that 
the  string  is  always  on  the  treble  side  of  the  pin 
in  a  horizontal  and  on  the  bass  side  in  an  upright 
piano.  When  the  tuner  wishes  to  raise  the  pitch 
of  a  string  he  turns  the  pin  so  as  to  wind  up  the 
string  on  it.  To  lower  the  pitch  he  turns  the  pin 
so  as  to  unwind  the  string. 

The  mechanical  problem  therefore  is  to  turn  the 
pins  in  the  wrest-planh  in  such  a  way  as  to  adjust 
the  pitch  of  each  string  to  the  requirements  of  the 


116  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

Equal  Temperament  at  the  standard  of  pitch 
agreed  on. 

The  Elements.  In  following  chapters,  I  give  a 
general  description  of  piano  construction  and 
necessarily  include  remarks  on  the  functions  of  all 
the  parts  herein  mentioned.  In  the  present  chap- 
ter, however,  I  shall  treat  these  only  with  relation 
to  the  tuner's  work. 

The  String.  The  piano  string  varies  in  length 
inversely  as  its  pitch  and  may  be  from  2  inches 
to  80  inches  long,  according  to  its  position  in  the 
scale  and  the  size  of  the  piano.  Steel  music  wire 
is  used,  varying  in  diameter  from  .03"  to  .06". 
The  lower  strings  are  wound  with  steel  or  copper 
overwinding  or  covering.  The  tension  at  which 
the  strings  are  stretched  varies  within  the  limits  of 
100  and  275  pounds ;  but  it  would  be  fair  to  name 
as  an  average  range  of  tension  per  string  in  mod- 
ern pianos  150  to  160  pounds,  although  there  is 
much  inequality  as  to  details. 

Bearing.  The  opposite  end  of  the  string  is 
passed  around  a  hitch  pin  in  the  iron  frame.  In 
order  to  transmit  its  vibrations  to  the  sound-board 
the  string  passes  over  a  wooden  bridge  provided 
with  double  raked  pins,  so  as  to  give  it  a  side 
bearing.     At  the  end  near  the  tuning  pin  the  string 


Mechanical  Technique  of  Tuning.        117 

passes  over  a  wooden  or  iron  bearing  bridge  which 
determines  the  upper,  as  the  sound^board  bridge 
determines  the  lower,  extremity  of  its  vibrating 
length.  This  upper  bridge  gives  an  up  and  down 
bearing  to  the  string.  It  is  important  that  these 
points  be  kept  in  mind  and  the  student  carefully 
study  the  construction  upon  an  actual  piano; 
which  I  am  presuming  he  has  at  hand. 

The  Pin  Block.  The  torsional  stress  on  the  pin 
being  what  it  is,  considering  the  high  tension  at 
which  the  string  is  commonly  stretched,  it  follows 
that  efficient  means  are  required  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  pin  in  a  given  position  under  this 
stress.  The  common  method  is  to  drive  the  pins 
into  a  wooden  block  called  the  wrest-plank  or  pin- 
block;  which  is  built  up  by  cross-banding  several 
strips  of  hard  wood.  Such  a  block,  when  drilled 
for  the  reception  of  the  tuning  pins  at  right  angles 
to  the  plane  of  the  banding,  gives  an  exceedingly 
stiff  bedding,  for  the  cross-grained  strips  present 
alternately  end-grain  and  cross-grain,  making  a 
structure  which  interposes  a  very  great  frictional 
resistance  to  the  rotative  movement  of  the  pin.  It 
is  the  frictional  resistance  which  is  responsible 
for  the  pin  holding  its  position,  and  hence  for  the 
string  remaining  at  a  given  tension. 


118  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

The  Tuning-Pin.  The  tuning-pin  is  a  stout  steel 
rod  almost  uniform  in  diameter  from  end  to  end, 
and  threaded  with  a  light  fine  thread.  One  ex- 
tremity is  bluntly  pointed  and  the  other  is  squared 
off  to  receive  the  tuning-hammer  and  pierced  for 
the  insertion  of  the  end  of  the  string.  It  is  custo- 
mary to  wrap  the  string  around  the  pin  in  three  or 
four  coils. 

The  Bridges.  The  sound-board  bridges  carry 
the  strings  between  pins  set  at  an  angle  to  each 
other,  in  such  a  way  that  each  string  is  diverted 
from  its  line  of  direction  and  carried  on  from  the 
bridge  to  the  hitch-pin  on  a  line  parallel  with  the 
original  line.  The  side-bearing  thus  given  to  the 
string  is  intended  to  ensure  its  tightness  and 
steadiness  on  the  bridge. 

The  upper  bearing  bridge  sometimes  is  in  the 
form  of  a  separate  stud  or  ''agraffe"  for  each 
string,  and  sometimes  consists  of  a  ledge  cast  in 
the  plate  over  which  the  string  passes,  to  be  forced 
down  into  a  bearing  position  by  a  heavy  pressure 
bar  screwed  over  it.  The  object  is  to  give  bearing 
to  the  string.  The  ''capo-d 'astro"  bar  is  simply 
the  pressure-bar  arrangement  cast  in  one  piece. 
The  student  will  be  well  advised  to  study  all  these 
constructions  on  the  piano  at  first  hand. 


Mechanical  Technique  of  Tuning.        119 

The  Tuning -Hammer.  The  tuning-hammer, 
with  which  the  actual  turning  of  the  pin  is  accom- 
plished, is  a  steel  rod  carrying  a  head  bored  to 
receive  the  pin.  The  hammer  is  placed  on  the  pin. 
which  is  turned  by  pressure  of  the  hand  on  the 
hammer  handle  in  the  required  direction.  There 
are  many  interesting  points  about  the  manipula- 
tion of  the  hammer,  however,  which  must  now  be 
considered. 

The  mechanical  problem  relates  to  the  turning 
of  a  pin  acting  under  a  combined  tensional  and 
torsional  strain;  in  other  words  a  pin  which  is 
being  simultaneously  pulled  down,  and  twisted 
around.  If  the  wrest-plank  is  well  made,  the  pin 
will  resist  successfully  both  of  these  strains  and 
when  turned  by  the  hammer  will  retain  its  new 
position.  But  in  order  that  this  should  be  so  it  is 
necessary  to  acquire  a  certain  technique  of  manip- 
ulation. 

Manipulating  the  Hammer.  The  implement 
used  for  turning  the  pins  and  known  as  the  tuning- 
hammer  is,  by  its  very  shape,  susceptible  of  wrong 
use.  It  presents  the  constant  temptation  to 
manipulate  it  as  if  it  were  a  wrench.  The  resist- 
ance that  the  pin  and  string  impose  against  turn- 
ing is  sufficiently  great  to  cause  the  novice  nearly 


120  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

always  to  twist  and  wrench  at  the  pin  in  the  effort 
to  turn  it.  Now,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
distance  through  which  the  pin  is  turned  is  so  very 
slight  that  where  it  has  been  tightly  driven,  or 
presents  any  other  obstacle  to  free  turning,  the 
hammer  nearly  always  gives  too  hard  a  twist  or 
pull,  so  that  the  pin,  after  sticking,  turns  too  far. 
In  an  upright  piano  the  tuner  stands  in  front  of 
the  pins,  which  are  about  on  a  level  with  his  chest, 
and  his  natural  inclination  of  course  will  be  to  pull 
downwards  and  outwards  on  the  pins  whilst  at- 
tempting to  turn  them,  in  such  a  way  as  to  drag 
the  lower  surface  of  the  pin  against  the  bushing 
in  the  plate  and  so  gradually  wear  away  the  bush- 
ing and  the  wrest-plank  hole  and  finally  loosen  the 
pin  altogether.  In  order  to  overcome  these  possi- 
ble faults,  the  student  will  have  to  work  out  his 
own  method  of  manipulation,  bearing  in  mind  al- 
ways that  his  object  is  to  turn  the  pin  and  not 
merely  bend  it.  If  he  merely  bends  it  he  may  al- 
ter the  string  tension  enough  to  change  the  pitch 
as  desired ;  but  a  smart  blow  on  the  piano  key  will 
soon  knock  the  string  back  again  where  it  was  be- 
fore. That  is  why  young  tuners  do  not  tune 
** solidly."  They  do  not  turn  the  pins;  they 
merely  bend  them.     I  shall  offer  the  following  sug- 


Mechanical  Technique  of  Tuning.        121 

gestions  regarding  the  general  handling  of  the 
piano  in  tuning,  out  of  my  own  experience,  with 
the  understanding  that  I  do  not  put  them  forth  as 
rules,  but  only  as  notions  which  have  been  found 
practical  in  one  man 's  work. 

1.  Length  of  Hammer.  Other  things  being 
equal,  the  experience  of  the  best  tuners  points  to 
the  use  of  a  short  handled  hammer,  instead  of  a 
long  one.  I  prefer  a  handle  not  more  than  12 
inches  long. 

2.  Position  of  Hammer.  The  hammer  should  be 
held  nearly  vertical  when  tuning  upright  pianos, 
and  it  is  well  to  rest  the  arm,  as  this  tends  to  give 
better  leverage. 

3.  Turning  the  Pin.  In  attempting  to  turn  the 
pin,  do  not  jerk  the  hammer  back  and  forth,  nor 
on  the  other  hand,  use  it  like  a  wrench,  but  rather 
try  to  turn  the  pin  by  gently  impelling  it  in  the  de- 
sired direction,  feeling  it  all  the  time  under  the 
hand  and  avoiding  the  mistake  of  pulling  down  on 
the  pin  whilst  turning  it  in  the  sharp  direction. 

4.  Use  of  Left  Hand,  in  upright  piano.  The 
best  way  of  making  sure  that  the  pin  is  not  pulled 
downwards  whilst  the  string  is  being  sharped  is 
to  hold  the  tuning  hammer  in  the  left  hand.  The 
pin  is  then  raised  in  the  process  of  sharping ;  which 


122  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

is  as  it  should  be.  In  any  case,  the  hammer  should 
be  held  vertical,  or  still  better,  inclining  slightly 
over  to  the  bass  side.  The  above  applies  to  the 
upright  piano  only. 

5.  And  in  Grand  Pianos.  In  a  grand  piano,  to 
tune  with  the  right  hand  is  best  on  account  of  the 
position  of  the  tuner  with  relation  to  the  strings ; 
which  is  opposite  to  the  position  with  reference  to 
the  upright.  But  the  highest  treble  strings,  on  ac- 
count of  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  grand 
piano,  are  most  conveniently  tuned  with  the  ham- 
mer held  in  the  left  hand. 

6.  Tuning  Pure  Intervals  First.  All  intervals 
that  are  to  be  tempered  should  be  first  tuned  pure 
and  then  raised  or  lowered.^  Other  things  being 
equal,  it  is  better  to  tune  slightly  above  the  re- 
quired pitch  and  let  the  string  slack  back;  which 
can  be  assisted  by  a  smart  blow  on  the  key.  Coax- 
ing the  string  up  to  pitch  usually  involves  its  slack- 
ing off  as  soon  as  the  piano  is  played. 

7.  Strings  Hanging  on  Bridges.  Strings  often 
hang  on  the  belly  bridge  and  on  the  upper  bearing. 
The  waste  ends  at  either  extremity  sometimes 
cause  this  trouble.  The  tuner  must  acquire  the 
habit  of  so  tuning  that  the  string  is  pulled  evenly 

1  See  page  96. 


Mechanical  Technique  of  Tuning.        123 

through  its  entire  length,  from  tuning-pin  to  hitch- 
pin,  maintaining  the  tension  of  all  its  sections  uni- 
form. To  be  sure  that  the  pin  is  thoroughly 
turned  gives  the  best  assurance  that  the  above  re- 
quirement has  been  fulfilled. 

8.  '^ Pounding"  Condemned.  I  do  not  believe 
in  brutally  pounding  on  the  keys  of  a  piano  in  an 
effort  to  "settle  the  strings."  It  is  quite  uncer- 
tain how  much  the  strings  can  be  * '  settled ' '  in  any 
way  like  this ;  and  the  process  is  objectionable  in 
every  other  way. 

9.  Muting.  The  simplest  way  of  muting  the 
strings  is  by  using  a  long  strip  of  felt  to  stop  off 
the  outside  strings  of  the  triples  and  the  alternate 
strings  of  the  doubles,  from  one  end  of  the  piano 
to  the  other,  before  the  tuning  begins.  Then  the 
temperament  Octave  may  be  tuned  on  the  middle 
string  of  each  note  and  the  Octaves  up  and  down 
therefrom;  after  which  the  outside  strings  of  the 
Unisons  may  be  tuned  all  together.  If  however 
for  any  reasons  such  as  those  mentioned  below, 
this  causes  the  piano  to  stress  unevenly,  the  Uni- 
sons can  be  adjusted  section  by  section. 

10.  Position  at  the  piano.  All  things  considered 
it  is  better  to  stand  up  to  tune  all  pianos,  even 
grand  pianos.     The  practice  of  sitting  to  tune  up- 


124  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

right  pianos  is  certainly  to  be  condemned,  as  it 
leads  to  slovenly  handling  of  the  hammer  and 
general  slackness. 

11.  Raising  Pitch.  In  raising  the  pitch  of  a 
piano,  go  over  it  at  least  twice,  the  first  time 
roughly,  the  second  time  smoothly.  If  the  amount 
of  rise  required  is  very  great  the  piano  will  need 
three  tunings  at  once  and  another  shortly  after. 
Arrangements  should  be  made  with  the  owner  of 
the  piano  in  accordance  with  the  extra  amount 
of  work  to  be  done. 

12.  On  Old  Pianos.  Raising  the  pitch  on  old 
pianos  is  always  risky,  as  strings  are  likely  to 
break.  In  emergencies,  rust  may  be  treated,  at 
the  upper  bearing  bridge  and  hitchpins,  sparingly 
with  oil.  But  oil  is  only  to  be  used  in  emergencies, 
and  with  the  utmost  care  to  see  that  it  does  not 
reach  the  wrest-plank  or  soundboard  bridges. 

13.  Lowering  Pitch.  In  lowering  the  pitch,  not 
less  than  three  tunings  will  be  required  usually. 
This  work  is  even  more  delicate  than  the  above 
and  needs  even  more  care.  The  first  tuning 
should  be  merely  a  rough  letting  down.  Then 
the  second  may  be  a  rough,  and  the  third  a  smooth, 
tuning.  But  it  is  well  to  have  an  interval  of  a 
day  between  the  second  and  the  third  tunings. 


Mechanical  Technique  of  Tuning.        125 

14.  Gang  Mute.  Even  if  a  felt  strip  for  a  whole 
section  is  not  used,  it  is  advisable  to  have  the 
entire  temperament  Octave  wedged  up  whilst  tun- 
ing it,  so  as  not  to  have  to  disturb  Unisons  after 
they  have  been  tuned.  It  is  usually  necessary 
to  make  various  corrections  in  the  temperament 
Octave  as  it  is  being  tuned. 

15.  Uniform  Pitch.  Uniformity  of  pitch  is  a 
desideratum.  Every  tuner  should  have  an  inter- 
national pitch  guaranteed  fork,  kept  carefully  in 
a  felt-lined  box  and  carefully  guarded  from  rust. 
Tune  to  this  pitch  whenever  possible.  But  do  not 
make  the  mistake  of  trying  to  adjust  all  pianos  to 
one  pitch.     It  cannot  be  done. 

16.  Theatre  Pianos.  In  tuning  pianos  for  use 
in  theatres  with  orchestras,  it  is  advisable  usually 
to  tune  a  few  audible  beats  above  the  pitch  of  the 
instrument  which  is  used  as  a  standard.  This  in- 
strument is  usually  the  clarinet  or  cornet  (in  sym- 
phony orchestras,  the  oboe),  which  rises  in  pitch 
as  it  warms  in  the  course  of  playing. 

17.  False  Beats.  The  worst  single  enemy  the 
tuner  has  is  the  string  with  false  beats.  In  a 
good  piano  factory  such  strings  are  taken  out  and 
replaced  before  the  piano  leaves  the  premises. 
Sometimes  faults  in  the  scale,  and  especially  the 


126  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

fault  of  uneven  tension,  make  for  strings  that 
beat  when  sounded  alone.  This  beating  arises 
through  sections  of  the  strings  being  unevenly 
stressed,  whereby  the  corresponding  partial  tones 
are  thrown  out  of  tune.  Such  uneven  stress  may 
be  the  result  of  a  twist  put  in  the  wire  during  the 
stringing,  or  of  uneven  thickness  of  the  wire. 
When  false  beats  are  encountered,  sometimes  the 
tuner  will  find  he  can  neutralize  the  beats  by  tun- 
ing the  string  slightly  off  from  the  other  two  of 
the  triple.  If  no  such  expedient  will  work,  then 
the  strings  must  be  left  alone.  Such  false  beats 
are  especially  to  be  found  in  the  upper  treble. 

18.  Bass  Tuning.  The  real  fundamental  tones 
of  the  lowest  strings  are  not  actually  heard.  We 
hear  instead  upper  partials  thereof.  Hence  it  is 
very  often  impossible  to  tune  bass  octaves  by  mere 
audition  of  beats  between  coincident  partials.  In 
this  condition  of  affairs  the  tuner  may  tune  by 
testing  the  Tenths,  which  is  a  good  plan,  or  by 
isolating  some  partial  and  testing  it  with  the  cor- 
responding note  above.  To  tune  a  clear  bass  is 
sometimes  impossible.^ 

19.  Test  Intervals.  All  the  tests  recommended 
in  the  previous  chapter  should  be  used  constantly 

1  Cf.  the  discussions  in  Chapters  II,  III  and  IV. 


Mechanical  Technique  of  Tuning.        127 

during  the  progress  of  the  work,  for  the  tuning 
will  not  be  good  otherwise.  The  most  prolific 
source  of  imperfection  lies  in  the  accumulation 
of  exceedingly  slight  errors;  which  soon  mount 
up  to  intolerable  mistunings.  Constant  testing, 
note  by  note,  is  therefore  absolutely  essential. 

20.  Sharp  Treble.  The  temptation  to  tune  the 
treble  tones  too  high  is  one  constantly  to  be 
avoided,  for  it  is  constantly  present.  Careful 
testing  will  alone  rid  the  tuner  of  this  error,  which 
is  insidious  and  habit-forming. 

21.  Lastly:  Not  twenty,  but  a  hundred  and 
twenty,  rules  or  suggestions  like  these  could  easily 
be  laid  down ;  but  I  prefer  to  leave  the  subject  here. 
The  student  will  learn  at  least  one  more :  the  value 
of  Patience. 

''Style."  The  student  will  also  determine  for 
himself,  as  time  goes  on,  the  characteristics  of 
what  may  be  called  his  special  ''style."  Tuning 
is  an  art  and  one  which  suffers  more  through 
being  misunderstood  than  through  any  other 
single  condition.  The  fine  tuner  is  an  artist  in 
every  sense  of  the  word  and  the  mental  charac- 
teristics he  must  possess  are  such  as  not  every- 
body can  hope  to  have. 

Understanding    and    Patience.    Understanding 


128  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

and  Patience  are  the  foundation  of  the  tuner's  art 
and  for  my  part  I  am  not  sure  to  which  of  these 
qualities  I  should  award  the  primacy.  Certainly 
it  is  true  that  without  Understanding  the  tuner  is 
groping  in  the  dark ;  whilst  without  Patience  he  is 
already  condemned  in  advance  to  failure  in  the 
attempt  to  do  artistic  work. 

Experience.  Experience  too,  is  vastly  impor- 
tant. The  most  talented  student  of  the  art  finds 
that  there  is  a  mechanical  technique  to  be  mas- 
tered in  tuning,  just  as  in  playing  the  piano.  The 
necessary  delicacy  of  wrist  and  arm,  the  neces- 
sary intuitive  feeling  that  the  pin  has  been  turned 
as  it  should  be;  the  necessary  exquisite  delicacy 
of  ear :  ^  all  these  faculties  are  the  product  of 
patient  experiment  and  practice.  The  novice  can- 
not expect  to  possess  them;  nor  can  he  have  any 
reason  for  being  disappointed  when  he  finds,  as 
he  will  find,  that  to  gain  anything  worth  gaining, 
one  must  work — and  work  hard. 

1  "Delicacy"  here  means  rather  "power  of  discrimination"  than 
mere  intuition.  What  is  usually  called  a  "musical  ear"  is  noth- 
ing more  than,  at  best,  a  feeling  of  tonality  sometimes  extending 
so  far  as  unaided  recognition  of  individual  tones  and  tonalities  on 
hearing  them;  and  at  worst,  an  inclination  towards  simple  mel- 
ody, harmonically  bare.  Tlie  tuner's  audition  is  acoustical,  not 
artificially  musical.  The  ordinary  "musical  car"  is  of  little  value 
to  him. 


Mechanical  Technique  of  Tuning.         129 


<  t 


'Playing  the  Game."  Still,  it  also  remains 
that  when  one  does  take  the  trouble  to  play  the 
game  as  it  must  be  played,  the  reward  is  certain 
— and  by  no  means  contemptible;  even  when 
measured  by  mere  money,  the  lowest  of  standards. 
On  the  whole,  good  tuners  are  as  scarce  to-day  as 
they  were  fifty  years  ago.  The  tuning  of  every 
day  is  not  good,  usually;  and  the  artistic  tuner 
will  find  a  hearty  welcome,  and  adequate  compen- 
sation, almost  anywhere. 

Finally:  All  that  can  be  taught  by  a  book  I 
have  here  set  forth.  But  mastery  comes  only 
through  experience,  combined  with  patient  study 
and  application.  Various  matters  incidental  to 
the  art  which  do  not  come  within  the  scope  of 
*' tuning"  proper  are  treated  in  the  following 
chapters  of  this  book. 


Chapter  VI. 

THE    MODERN    PIANO. 

Scope  of  this  Chapter.  The  piano  is  the  most 
familiar  of  musical  instruments  and  one  of  the 
most  accessible  for  purposes  of  examination.  In 
the  following  pages,  I  shall  assume  that  the  reader 
has  a  piano  at  hand  and  will  follow  me  through- 
out, with  it  as  a  model.  Such  a  method  will  be 
found  more  satisfactory  than  if  I  asked  the  stu- 
dent to  follow  me  with  the  aid  merely  of  a  few 
illustrations.  I  shall  not  undertake  any  critical 
examination  of  the  details  of  piano  construction, 
for  this  is  the  province  of  a  special  technical 
treatise,^  but  shall  confine  myself  to  describing  the 
features  of  the  modern  piano  in  a  manner  cal- 
culated to  be  of  the  greatest  assistance  to  the 
tuner  and  repair  man. 

An  Instrument  of  Percussion.  The  piano  is  a 
stringed  instrument;  and  to  this  extent  belongs 

1  "Theory  and  Practice  of  Pianoforte  Building,"  by  the  present 
writer. 

130 


The  Modern  Piano.  131 

to  the  same  general  family  as  the  violin.  But  its 
strings  are  excited  by  blows  inflicted  directly  by 
a  hammer  and  indirectly,  through  a  mechanism 
called  the  '^ action,"  by  the  performer's  hand. 
Hence  the  piano  is  also  an  instrument  of  percus- 
sion and  belongs  to  the  same  general  family  with 
the  dulcimer,  the  xylophone  and  the  drums.  This 
last  fact  is  of  great  importance,  for  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  understand  the  peculiarities  of  the  piano 
unless  we  entirely  forget  its  incidental  likeness 
to  other  stringed  instruments  and  concentrate  our 
ideas  upon  the  outstanding  fact  of  percussion  as 
the  cause  of  the  sounds  evoked  by  it. 

Upon  the  fact  that  the  strings  are  violently 
struck,  instead  of  being  bowed  or  plucked,  rests 
the  entire  character  of  the  piano,  making  any  com- 
parison of  it  with  the  violin  or  other  stringed  in- 
strument absurd.  This  is  especially  true  with 
regard  to  the  sound-board. 

Three  Elements.  The  piano  proper  comprises 
three  elements ;  the  scale,  the  sound-board  and  the 
hammer-action.  All  other  parts  are  entirely  in- 
cidental and  accessory. 

Scale.  The  scale  of  the  piano  consists  essen- 
tially of  the  set  of  strings  which  are  struck  by  the 
hammers.     There  are  eighty-eight  digitals  in  the 


132  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

key-board  of  the  piano  and  thus  eighty-eight  sepa- 
rate tones.  The  strings  are  grouped  three  to  an 
unison  throughout  some  five  octaves  of  the  range, 
and  thence  in  double  grouping  (2  to  a  note)  down- 
wards to  the  lowest  bass.  The  last  ten  or  twelve 
at  the  lowest  bass  extreme  are  usually  single 
strings. 

Now  it  will  be  understood  that  the  strings  of 
the  piano  increase  in  length  and  weight  as  the 
scale  descends.  The  highest  note  on  the  piano 
(C7)  is  evoked  by  a  string  some  2  inches  long,  and 
this  length  rather  less  than  doubles  at  each  oc- 
tave descending,  until  the  lengthening  process  is 
brought  to  a  stop  at  the  size  limits  of  the  piano. 
This  lengthening  increases  the  weight  of  the  de- 
scending strings  until  at  about  five  octaves  below 
C7,  it  becomes  necessary  to  shorten  the  remain- 
ing strings  between  this  point  and  the  extreme 
bass  on  account  of  the  size  limits  mentioned  above. 
The  requisite  slowness  of  vibration  therefore  must 
be  had  by  over-weighting  the  shortened  strings; 
which  is  done  by  covering  them  with  iron  or  cop- 
per wire.  This  covered  section  is  usually  strung 
cross-ways  over  the  treble  strings  and  is  there- 
fore called  the  overstrung  section. 

Now  the  immediate  point  is  that  the  main- 


The  Modern  Piano.  133 

tenance  of  this  enormous  mass  of  steel  wire 
stretched  tightly  between  fixed  points  and  cap- 
able of  withstanding  the  hardest  blows  of  the 
hammers,  means  that  (1)  the  tension  at  which 
each  string  is  stretched  must  be  high  and  (2)  that 
in  consequence,  an  elaborate  structure  must  be 
provided  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  this  mass 
under  this  high  tension.  The  pull  on  each  string 
averages  not  less  than  160  pounds,  taking  mod- 
ern pianos  by  and  large,  although  I  consider  this 
too  high  for  the  best  tonal  results.  The  total 
tensional  strain  therefore  is  not  less  than  35,000 
pounds  on  the  average;  and  this  strain  must  be 
borne  by  the  supporting  structure. 

Upright  Piano;  Plate  and  Bach.  The  support- 
ing structure  in  the  upright  piano  consists  of  (1)  a 
relatively  thin  plate  or  frame  of  metal  backed  by 
a  decidedly  heavy  and  massive  framing  of  wood. 
The  shape  and  dimensions  of  the  plate  vary  with 
the  size  of  the  piano  and  the  peculiarities  of  the 
individual  scale  plan.  The  back  consists  of  three 
or  more  wooden  posts  crossed  at  top  and  bot- 
tom by  heavy  planks.  The  top  plank  is  faced 
on  the  surface  nearest  the  strings  by  a  specially 
prepared  wooden  block  or  '^wrest-plank"  into 
which  are  driven  the  tuning-pins  which  fasten  the 


134  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

upper  extremities  of  the  strings  and  wluch  the 
tuner  turns  when  adjusting  the  pitch  of  the  piano ; 
''tuning  the  piano"  as  we  say. 

The  iron  plate  covers  the  front  of  this  massive 
wooden  back,  and  the  sound-board  is  fastened  to 
the  back  with  the  iron  plate  over  it.^ 

Grand  Piano:  Plate  and  Back.  The  support- 
ing structure  of  the  grand  piano  is  somewhat  dif- 
ferent. In  the  upright  the  sides  and  the  casing 
generally  are  simply  attached  to  the  fundamental 
structure  known  as  the  back.  But  in  the  grand 
piano  the  whole  case  is  glued  around  a  rim  of  cross 
banded  veneers  which  in  turn  encloses  another 
rim,  into  which  runs  the  system  of  braces  and 
struts  which  comprises  what  corresponds  to  the 
upright  back  and  on  which  sound-board  and  plate 
are  laid. 

First-hand  study  of  pianos  in  grand  and  upright 
form  will  reveal  all  these  matters  to  the  student 
clearly. 

Sound-Board  and  Bridges.  The  sound-board 
of  the  piano  is  the  resonating  apparatus  which 
amplifies  and  modifies  the  string-sounds,  so  as 
to  endue  them  with  the  characteristics  of  piano 

1  The  method  of  gluing  the  souiid-board  to  the  back  and  all 
similar  technical  details  may  be  found  described  in  my  "Theory 
and  Practice  of  Pianoforte  Building." 


The  Modern  Piano.  135 

tone.  It  is  an  open  question  how  much  influence 
the  sound-board  exercises  in  the  development  of 
tone.  My  own  theory  has  been  for  long  that  the 
sound-board  is  a  true  vibrator  and  the  direct 
producer  of  the  piano  tone;  and  that  the  string 
acts  rather  as  the  selector,  imposing  upon  the 
board  the  particular  wave-form  which  its  own  vi- 
bration evokes.^ 

From  the  tuner's  point  of  view,  the  chief  pres- 
ent interest  of  the  sound-board  lies  in  its  physical 
character  and  its  behavior  under  use.  Even  a 
cursory  examination  of  the  sound-board  and  of 
the  bridges  which  cross  it  carrying  the  strings, 
indicates  clearly  that  two  essential  conditions 
must  exist  if  the  board  is  to  perform  its  resonat- 
ing duty  well.  The  strings  must  be  maintained 
on  an  adequate  up-bearing  and  side-bearing, 
whilst  the  board  must  be  in  a  state  of  tension. 
The  board  must  be  resilient,  but  also  stiff,  in  a 
sense.  It  must  be  arched  upwards  to  maintain 
itself  against  the  immense  down  pressure  of  the 
strings,  but  also  it  must  be  built  so  that  the  neces- 
sary arching  will  have  no  injurious  effect  upon 
the  wood-fibres,  with  consequent  splitting  or  crack- 

1  This  matter  is  further  treated  in  the  following  chapter.     Cf. 
also,  "Theory  and  Practice  of  Pianoforte  Building,"  pp.  58  et  seq, 


136  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

ing.  It  will  easily  be  seen  then  that  the  sound- 
board of  the  piano  is  a  structure  of  exceeding  deli- 
cacy, called  upon  to  perform  difficult  and  labori- 
ous duties. 

The  strings  are  carried  over  the  sound-board 
on  two  wooden  bridges,  one  for  the  overstrung 
bass  and  one  for  the  remaining  strings.  It  is 
customary  to  construct  these  bridges  of  cross- 
banded  hard  maple  veneers,  to  avoid  splitting. 
The  strings  in  their  passage  across  the  bridges  are 
given  side-bearing  by  means  of  suitably  driven 
pins.  These  bridges  are  glued  on  to  the  sound- 
board and  secured  from  the  back  thereof  by  means 
of  screws. 

Ribs.  The  sound-board  is  ribbed  with  strips 
of  the  same  lumber  (spruce)  which  is  used  for 
the  body  of  the  board.     The  object  of  ribbing  is 

(1)  to  facilitate  the  impartation  of  a  proper  curve, 
or  arch  (called  usually  the  *^ crown")  to  the  board, 

(2)  to  impart  tension  to  the  board  and  (3)  to 
strengthen  it  against  the  string-pressure.  Ribs 
are  usually  12  to  14  in  number  and  cross  the  board 
diagonally,  from  the  top  of  the  treble  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  bass,  side. 

The  above  description  applies  equally  well  to 
grand  or  upright  pianos. 


The  Modern  Piano.  137 

Hammers.  The  strings  of  the  piano  are  excited 
by  blows  inflicted  on  them  by  what  are  called 
* 'hammers."  The  hammer  consists  of  a  molded 
wooden  head  covered  with  a  special  kind  of  felt, 
and  varying  in  size  and  thickness  from  treble  to 
bass,  the  heaviest  hammers  being  of  course  those 
in  the  bass.  Postponing  a  complete  technical  dis- 
cussion of  the  piano  hammer  for  a  later  chapter 
we  may  here  remark  that  important  considera- 
tions are  the  position  of  the  hammer  with  refer- 
ence to  the  point  at  which  each  string  is  struck, 
and  the  nature  of  the  mechanism  whereby  the 
performer  translates  his  desires  into  mechanical 
action  upon  the  hammer. 

''Touch."  All  that  which  is  known  by  the  gen- 
eral name  of  "touch"  in  relation  to  the  playing 
of  the  piano  means,  ultimately,  control  of  the 
piano  hammer.  A  great  deal  of  confusion  on  the 
part  of  tuners,  not  to  mention  musicians  and  the 
lay  public,  would  be  altogether  swept  away  if 
only  it  were  realized  that  in  piano  playing  the 
control  of  the  string's  vibration,  which  of  course, 
means  control  of  the  wave-form  and  hence  of  the 
sound-board  vibration,  and  hence  lastly  of  the 
volume  and  quality  of  the  tone,  is  entirely  a  mat- 
ter of  the  hammer.     The  weight  of  the  hanuner. 


138  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

the  nature  of  its  material  as  to  density,  etc.,  and 
the  arc  of  travel  through  which  it  turns,  together 
with  its  velocity,  are  the  controlling  factors  in  tone 
production.  This  turning  of  the  hammer  in 
obedience  to  the  depression  of  the  piano  key  is  the 
province  of  what  is  called  the  ^'Action"  of  the 
piano. 

Action.  The  '* action"  of  the  piano  is  the 
mechanism  interposed  between  hammer  and  per- 
former. It  consists  essentially  of  a  set  of  digitals 
or  finger-keys,  one  for  each  tone  in  the  compass  of 
the  piano,  and  an  equal  number  of  lever-systems, 
consisting  of  levers  turning  in  arcs  of  circles,  one 
to  each  key,  operating  the  hammer.  When  the 
key  is  depressed,  the  hammer  is  thrown  forward, 
trips  before  it  touches  the  string,  is  carried  to  the 
string  by  its  own  momentum,  and  instantly  re- 
bounds. The  string  is  allowed  to  vibrate  so  long 
as  the  key  is  depressed.^ 

Damper  Action.  The  so-called  "damper"  is  a 
piece  of  molded  wood  faced  with  soft  felt,  which 
presses  against  the  string,  but  is  lifted  away 
therefrom  as  soon  as  the  key  is  depressed.  The 
damper  allows  the  string  to  vibrate  freely  until 

1  Cf.  Chapter  VITI  for  complete  discussion  of  these  points. 


The  Modern  Piano.  139 

the  key  is  released,  when  it  at  once  falls  back  on 
the  string  and  silences  it. 

For  the  purposes  of  artistic  piano  playing,  how- 
ever, it  is  necessary  very  often  to  take  advantage 
of  the  sympathetic  resonance  of  the  sound-board 
by  allowing  the  tone  emitted  by  one  or  several 
string-groups  to  be  strengthened,  colored  and 
otherwise  enriched  by  the  simultaneous  sounding 
of  other  strings  whose  fundamentals  are  true  par- 
tials  to  the  originally  sounded  strings.  When  the 
entire  line  of  dampers  is  lifted  from  the  strings 
and  held  away  from  them  by  suitable  mechanism, 
this  property  of  the  sound-board  comes  into  play, 
and  the  warm  color  thus  imparted  to  the  tone  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  most  valuable  elements  in  piano 
playing. 

In  order  to  permit  this  advantage,  the  line  of 
dampers  is  adapted  to  be  pushed  back  from  the 
strings  (or  in  the  grand  piano,  lifted  up  from 
them)  by  means  of  a  rod  actuated  by  a  simple 
lever  system  which  terminates  in  a  ''pedal"  op- 
erated by  the  right  foot  of  the  performer.  This 
lever  system  is  called  the  "trap-work"  of  the 
piano  and  is  situated  under  the  keyboard  in  the 
grand  piano,  with  the  pedals  arranged  in  a  frame- 


140  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

work  known  as  the  *'lyre";  whilst  in  the  upright 
the  pedal  and  trap-work  are  placed  at  the  bottom 
of  the  piano  on  what  is  called  the  '' bottom-board." 
The  pedal  is  convenient  to  the  performer's  right 
foot  and  is  called  the  "sustaining  pedal";  some- 
times, wrongly,  the  "loud  pedal." 

Soft-Pedal.  In  the  grand  piano  the  keys  and 
action  are  put  together  on  a  frame  which  can  slide 
transversely.  By  depression  of  a  second  pedal 
the  action  is  slid  towards  the  treble,  so  that  each 
hammer  strikes  only  two  strings  of  each  triple, 
and  one  of  each  double,  group.  The  effect  is  to 
soften  the  tone  and  modify  its  color.  Similar 
trap-work  is  used  between  pedal  and  action,  placed 
alongside  the  sustaining  pedal  action.  The  sec- 
ond pedal  is  placed  conveniently  to  the  per- 
former's left  foot  and  is  called  the  "soft 
pedal. ' ' 

In  the  upright  piano  the  arrangement  is  the 
same  except  that  instead  of  shifting  the  action, 
the  hammers  are  pushed  forward  closer  to  the 
strings  by  a  rod  which  rotates  the  rail  against 
which  the  hammer-shanks  rest. 

Sostenuto  or  tone-sustaining  pedal.  On  grand 
pianos,  and  occasionally  on  uprights,  is  to  be 
found  a  third  pedal  situated  between  the  other  two 


The  Modern  Piano.  141 

and  arranged  to  hold  up  dampers  which  are  al- 
ready lifted  by  the  action  of  the  performer  in  play- 
ing on  the  keys ;  and  to  hold  them  up  as  long  as  de- 
sired. A  rod  is  rotated  when  the  pedal  is  de- 
pressed, which  catches  against  felt  tongues  on 
any  dampers  that  may  have  been  raised,  and  holds 
them  up.  So  if  the  performer  wishes  to  sustain 
a  chord  after  his  fingers  have  quitted  the  keys,  he 
depresses  this  pedal  after  he  has  struck  the  keys 
and  allows  the  strings  to  vibrate  accordingly  un- 
til the  pedal  is  released. 

Middle  pedals  in  upright  pianos  are  sometimes 
arranged  for  the  same  purpose,  and  sometimes 
lift  the  bass  section  of  dampers.  Sometimes  they 
operate  a  ''muflBer,"  being  a  strip  of  felt  that  can 
be  thrown  between  the  hammers  and  the  strings 
for  the  purpose  of  '' muffling"  the  sound.  This 
is  useful  for  practice  purposes. 

Case  Work.  The  case  of  the  upright  piano  con- 
sists of  the  following  parts : 

Sides :     Glued  on  to  the  sides  of  the  back. 

Arms:  Extending  from  sides  to  support  key- 
bed. 

Key-Bed :    Upon  which  the  key- frame  is  laid. 

Toes :  Extending  from  bottom  of  sides  to  sup- 
port Trusses. 


142  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

Trusses :  Resting  on  Toes  and  holding  up  key- 
bed.     Sometimes  called  the  '4egs." 

Fall-Board:  The  folding  lid  over  the  keys. 
The  double  folding  type  is  now  usual  and  is  called 
the  "Boston"  fall-board.  The  older  type  or 
single  lid  is  called  the  "New  York"  fall-board. 

Shelf:     Laid  over  fall-board  to  support  music. 

Name-Board:  Eesting  over  keys  to  support 
single  type  fall-board. 

Key-slip:     Strip  in  front  of  keys. 

Key-Blocks:  Heavy  blocks  at  each  extremity 
of  keyboard. 

Top-Frame:  Folding  or  fixed  frame,  often 
elaborately  decorated,  which  supports  music  and 
conceals  piano  action  and  hammers. 

Bottom-Frame:  Similar  frame  to  the  above, 
covering  trapwork  and  parts  of  piano  under  key- 
bed. 

Pilasters :  Decorative  pillars  sometimes  placed 
on  either  side  of  top-frame  to  support  it. 

Top:  The  folding  lid  which  covers  top  frame 
and  finishes  off  the  casework  of  the  piano. 

Bottom-Rail:  Rail  running  across  the  bottom 
of  the  casework,  in  which  the  pedals  are  housed. 

Bottom-Board:  Board  on  which  trap  work  is 
mounted,  behind  the  bottom-frame. 


The  Modern  Piano. 


143 


Names  of  External  Parts.  Although  the  piano 
is  such  a  familiar  article  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
confusion  as  to  the  names  to  be  applied  to  its 


Figure  15, 


1.  Top. 

2.  Side. 

3.  Pilaster. 

4.  Top  Frame, 
6,  Shelf. 

6.  Arm. 

7,  Key-Block, 


8.  Key-Slip. 

9.  Key-Bed. 

10.  Bottom  Frame. 

11.  Bottom   Rail. 

12.  Toe. 

13.  Truss. 

14.  Fall  Board. 


22  j 
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19      I9a       19b 


Figure  16. 


1.  Top. 

2.  Iron  Plate,  covering  wrest 

plank. 

3.  Treble   tuning-pins, 

4.  Side. 

5.  Muffler-rail    and    muffler 

felt. 

6.  Hammers. 

7.  Ilammer-rail. 


8.  Action. 

9.  Arm.  ' 

10.  Digitals  or  Keys. 

11.  Key-Bed. 

12.  Truss. 

13.  Toe. 

14.  Sound-board. 

15.  Iron  Plate. 

16.  Sustaining  Pedal. 
144 


The  Modern  Piano.  145 


17. 

Muffler  Pedal, 

20. 

Muffler   Trap-work, 

18. 

Soft  Pedal. 

21. 

Action. 

19. 

Trap-work. 

22. 

Soft  Pedal  Lifter. 

19a. 

Bottom  Kail. 

23. 

Action-bolt. 

19b. 

Bass   bridge. 

24. 

Bass  Tuning  Pins. 

19c. 

Treble  Bridge. 

various  parts.  In  figure  15  are  shown  the  ex- 
ternal or  visible  parts  of  an  upright  piano  with 
the  proper  name  for  each  appended. 

The  various  case  parts  of  the  grand  piano  are 
of  course  largely  similar,  but  the  different  posi- 
tion of  the  scale  necessitates  modifications,  which 
involve  some  changes  in  names  and  positions  of 
parts,  as  shown  on  page  147. 

Names  of  Internal  Parts.  In  order  to  provide 
the  reader  with  a  list  of  correct  names  for  the  vari- 
ous internal  parts  of  the  piano,  the  illustration  on 
page  144,  figure  16,  shows  an  internal  front  view 
of  an  upright  piano. 

The  rear  view  shown  on  page  146  indi- 
cates the  position  of  the  various  elements 
in  the  back  frame  and  the  rear  of  the  sound- 
board. 

The  grand  piano,  figure  18,  page  147,  cannot  so 
well  be  shown  as  its  internal  parts  are  hidden  by 
the  solid  case.  The  differences,  such  as  they  are, 
which  exist  between  the  two  types,  however,  are 
thoroughly  explained  in  the  pages  which  follow. 


Figure  17. 

1.  Top  Block  of  Back,  behind  wrest-plank. 

2.  Limiting  Rim  of  Sound-board. 

3.  Posts. 

4.  Ribbing. 

5.  Surface  of  Sound-board. 

6.  Bottom-rail  of  Back. 

7.  Limiting  rim  of  Sound-board. 


146 


Figure  18, 

1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
5a. 

Top. 

Top-Stick  or  Prop. 

Case. 

Key-Bed. 

Leg. 

Pedal-Frame   or   Ly 

6.  Pedal  Frame  Brace 

7.  Pedal  Rod. 

8.  Key-Slip. 

9.  Key-Block. 
10.     Fail-Board. 

re.             11.     Music  Desk. 

147 


148 


Modern  Piano  Tuning. 


Materials  Used  in  Piano  Construction. 


Woods  : 
Mahogany. 
Walnut. 
Oak. 

Circassian  Walnut. 
Bird's  Eye  Maple. 

Maple. 


White  Wood. 

White  Pine. 

Spruce. 

Pear. 

Holly. 

Sycamore. 

Cedar. 

Mahogany. 

Leiatheks  : 
Doeskin. 
Elkskin. 
Buckskin. 


Fext  and  Cloth: 

Green  and  White  Baize. 
Tone  Felt. 
Damper  Felt,  hard. 
Damper  Felt,  soft. 
Flannel. 


IVOBY. 

Celluloid. 
Iron. 

Steel. 

Bbass. 
Gbaphite. 


Used  In 

Veneers  for  Cases. 

Veneers  for  Cases. 

Veneers  for  Cases. 

Veneers  for  Cases. 

Veneers  for  Cases. 

Veneers  for  Cases. 

Wrest-Planks. 

Backs. 

Hammer  moldings  and  shanks. 

Hammer  rails,  dowels,  etc. 

Body  of  case  work. 

Key    Frames   and   keys. 

Soimd-boards. 


Various  small  action  parts. 


Various  action  parts. 


Key-rail  cloth,  punchings. 

Hammers. 

Bass  dampers. 

Treble-dampers. 

Casework  punchings,  fall-board 

8tri])s,      name-board      strips, 

stringing. 
Tops  of  white  keys. 

Fronts  of  white  keys. 

Iron     plate,     action     brackets, 
lx)lts  and  general  hardware. 

Action  angle  rails,  plates,  trap- 
work  springs,  etc. 
Action-springs,  pedal  feet,  rods, 

Lubrication  of  action,  etc. 


The  Modern  Piano.  149 

Various  other  materials  are  used  in  small  quan- 
tities, for  individual  manufacturers  have  their 
own  special  methods  which  require  special  mater- 
ials. But  the  above  includes  the  principal  ma- 
terials common  to  all  pianos. 

Finish.  Modern  pianos  are  elaborately  finished 
with  a  highly  polished  surface.  The  base  of  this 
finish  is  several  coats  of  varnish,  which  are  rubbed 
down  and  then  re-varnished  with  what  is  called  a 
''flowing"  coat  of  very  heavy  varnish.  This  is 
again  rubbed  down,  first  with  pumice  stone,  felt 
pad  and  water,  then  with  rotten  stone,  felt  pad 
and  water  and  then  with  the  hand.  The  final 
finish  is  given  by  rubbing  with  lemon  oil,  which 
is  lastly  wiped  off  with  cheese  cloth  wrung  out 
in  alcohol. 

Although  this  finish  is  very  beautiful  it  does  not 
retain  its  brilliancy  long  under  domestic  condi- 
tions. In  the  remarks  on  piano  repairing  I  have 
made  several  suggestions  concerning  the  repair 
of  damaged  varnish  work. 

This  brief  description  of  the  modern  piano  has 
been  intended  to  furnish  the  student  only  with 
an  explanation  of  the  relation  of  the  various  parts 
to  each  other  and  the  correct  functions  of  each. 
More   thorough   studies   are   made   in   following 


150  Modern  Piano  Tuning.  / 

chapters  of  certain  elements  which  the  tuner  re- 
quires to  understand  in  completeness  and  the 
present  chapter  will  be  perhaps  most  useful  in 
providing  a  convenient  peg  on  which  to  hang 
them.  Although  it  fulfills  so  humble  a  purpose, 
however,  it  will  not  be  without  its  value  if  it  im- 
presses on  the  reader's  mind  the  great  truth  that 
the  piano,  as  it  stands,  is  by  no  means  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  fruit  of  sudden  inspiration  but 
rather  as  the  contemporary  stage  in  a  long  proc- 
ess of  evolution.  The  history  of  the  instruments 
which  preceded  the  piano  in  point  of  time,  and 
which  in  system  are  its  ancestors,  shows  plainly 
that  the  invention  of  the  hammer  action  by 
Cristofori  in  1711  was  merely  the  culmination  of 
a  long  series  of  efforts  on  the  part  of  many  great 
craftsmen,  looking  towards  the  production  of  a 
musical  stringed  instrument  capable  of  doing  for 
domestic  use  what  the  organ  has  always  done  for 
the  church;  namely,  furnish  complete  command 
over  all  existing  resources  of  harmony  as  well  as 
of  melody.  The  piano  as  it  stands  to-day  is  the 
crown  of  three  centuries  of  endeavor;  but  it  is 
by  no  means  certain  that  it  will  not  yet  be  modi- 
fied much  further.  No  one  can  pretend  that  the 
piano  is  a  perfect  instrument.    Its  tempered  in- 


The  Modern  Piano.  151 

tonation,  its  rather  hard  unmalleable  tone,  its  lack 
of  true  sostenuto,  all  represent  defects  that  must 
in  time  be  improved  out  of  existence.  Meanwhile, 
we  have  to  take  the  piano  as  we  find  it,  realizing 
that  after  all  it  is  a  very  fine  and  very  wonder- 
ful instrument.^ 

Incidentally,  it  is  a  matter  for  congratulation 
that  the  modern  development  of  the  piano  is 
almost  wholly  an  American  achievement ;  and  that 
European  makers  are  confessedly  inferior  to  the 
best  of  their  American  colleagues.  Why  this 
should  be  so  is  another  matter;  but  it  certainly 
is  so. 

1  The  reader  who  desires  to  study  the  extremely  fascinating  liis- 
tory  of  the  piano  may  find  an  extensive  literature  on  the  subject. 
Hipkins  is  the  best  authority  by  all  means.  See  bibliographical 
note  at  the  end  of  this  volume. 


Chapter  VII. 

SOUND-BOARD   AND   STRINGS. 

Quite  as  characteristic  of  the  piano's  individu- 
ality as  the  hammer  action  itself,  is  the  apparatus 
of  resonance,  or,  as  we  more  usually  call  it,  the 
sound-board.  The  piano  is  a  stringed  instrument 
and  thus  claims  kinship  with  viols  and  lutes  and 
all  their  descendants ;  but  ever  so  much  more  it  is 
a  resonance  instrument  and  a  percussion  instru- 
ment. In  fact,  the  true  character  of  the  piano 
cannot  be  rightly  apprehended  until  we  have  real- 
ized that  the  string-element  is  really  overshad- 
owed to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  sound-board. 
The  piano  is  just  as  much  dependent  upon  reso- 
nance as  upon  the  prior  vibration  of  the  strings. 
Without  the  sound-board  the  piano  would  have 
neither  power  nor  color  to  its  tones.  Moreover, 
variations  in  the  quality  of  the  sound-board  ma- 
terial in  its  construction  and  in  the  skill  of  its  de- 
sign involve  parallel  variations  in  the  tonal  values 
of  pianos,  of  such  marked  and  distinct  charac- 

152 


Sound-Board  and  Strings.  153 

ter  as,  almost  without  any  special  physical  in- 
vestigation, to  convince  us  that  we  must  accord 
to  the  combined  tone-apparatus  which  we  call  the 
sound-board  and  strings,  entirely  individual  pe- 
culiarities and  functions. 

In  fact  I  propose  in  this  chapter  to  consider  the 
sound-board  and  strings  together  as  one  complete 
structure,  which  for  want  of  a  better  term,  we 
might  name  the  ''tone-emission  apparatus"  of 
the  piano.  In  this  and  in  what  follows,  I  do  not 
wish  to  be  considered  dogmatic,  and  certainly  have 
no  intention  of  composing  vague  and  involved 
disquisitions  on  the  subject-matter.  Practical 
throughout  this  book  is  proclaimed  to  be;  but  it 
is  impossible  to  talk  practically  about  the  piano's 
sound-board  and  its  strings,  unless  we  have  a  solid 
basis  of  fact  on  which  to  found  our  theories.  In- 
deed, in  this  particular  case,  as  in  many  others, 
the  one  sure  method  of  going  astray  is  to  rely 
on  rule-of-thumb  or  traditionary  notions;  as  the 
experience  of  numberless  persons  who  have  tried 
to  improve  the  sound-board,  most  clearly,  if  pain- 
fully, indicates.  Beginning  therefore  with  a  clear 
discussion  of  the  phenomena  seen  in  the  action  of 
the  sound-board  and  the  strings,  I  shall  try  to 
work  out  the  bearing  of  these  upon  the  facts  of 


154  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

piano  construction  as  they  affect  the  piano  tuner 
in  his  work,  the  pianist  in  his  playing  and  the 
piano  in  its  durability  and  value. 

Definition  of  tone-emission  apparatus  functions. 
The  object  of  the  tone-emission-apparatus  may 
be  described  as  follows:  to  produce  the  charac- 
teristic piano  tone,  through  the  vibration  of  the 
strings  in  response  to  the  percussive  action  of  the 
hammers  thereon,  and  through  the  resonating 
functions  of  the  sound-board,  whereby  the  original 
string  wave-forms  are  combined,  amplified,  and 
transformed  in  quality  as  required  for  the  pur- 
pose indicated. 

That  is  not  a  neat  definition  perhaps,  nor  is  it 
uncommonly  accurate  in  all  its  parts ;  but  for  the 
present  it  is  perhaps  the  truest  description  that 
can  be  assimilated.  Later  on  we  shall  improve 
and  refine  the  details  with  better  understanding. 

Piano  Tone.  The  feature  of  the  piano  which 
distinguishes  it  generally  from  all  other  musical 
instruments,  and  specially  from  all  other  stringed 
instruments,  is  the  peculiar  character  of  its  tone. 
This  is,  to  an  extent,  of  course,  hard  and  un- 
malleable.  It  possesses  neither  the  plasticity  of 
the  violin  tone  nor  the  bitter-sweet  gayety  and 
lightness  of  the  guitar.     It  is  solid,  yet  evanescent, 


Sound-Board  and  Strings.  155 

hard  yet  capable  of  infinite  gradation  in  inten- 
sity. Lacking  the  serenity  and  majesty  of  the 
organ  diapason,  it  is  pre-eminent  in  obedience  to 
touch.  The  pianist  cannot  indeed  sustain  his 
tones,  nor  swell  or  diminish  them  at  will.  Here 
both  organ  and  violin  surpass  the  piano.  But  the 
pianist  can  color  his  tone  almost  as  widely  as 
the  violinist,  and  withal  has  a  touch  control  over 
dynamics  which  the  organ  entirely  lacks.  Thus 
the  tone  of  the  piano,  as  brought  forth  by  a  good 
performer,  has  qualities  highly  attractive,  which, 
combined  with  the  convenience  of  the  instrument, 
its  capacity  for  complete  musical  expression  in 
all  possible  harmonic  relations,  and  its  moderate 
price,  have  made  it  supreme  in  popularity.  Let 
us  then  see  just  how  this  peculiar  tone  is  pro- 
duced. 

Acoustical  Definition  of  Piano  Tone.  Speaking 
from  the  view-point  which  we  have  adopted  in 
Chapter  II,  it  may  be  said  that  piano  tone  is  the 
effect  of  a  wave-form  induced  by  hammers  strik- 
ing upon  heavy  high-tension  stretched  strings  at 
pre-determined  points  on  the  surface  thereof; 
these  waves  having  definite  forms  which  are  modi- 
fied by  the  resonating  power  of  the  sound-board. 
The  first  important  feature  is  that  the  piano  tone 


156  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

is  produced  by  the  strings  being  struck;  thus  dis- 
tinguishing the  piano  from  all  other  stringed  in- 
struments. 

The  string  is  struck.  As  we  have  already  found 
out  ^  a  string  stretched  at  high  tension  and  struck 
by  a  piano  hammer,  is  thrown  into  an  extremely 
complex  form  of  vibration.  This  vibrational  form 
consists  of  the  resultant  of  a  number  of  simple 
forms,  which  in  turn  are  the  effect  of  the  string's 
vibrating  in  various  segments  as  well  as  in  its 
whole  length.  In  short,  the  fundamental  tone  of 
the  string,  together  with  partial  tones  correspond- 
ing to  at  least  the  following  five  divisions,^  sound 
together  whenever  the  hammer  makes  its  stroke. 
The  exact  number  of  concomitant  partials  depends, 
partly  upon  the  amplitude  of  the  vibration,  which 
depends  in  turn  upon  the  intensity  of  the  blow, 
partly  upon  choice  of  the  point  of  contact  of 
hammer  on  string,  and  partly  upon  the  stiffness 
and  weight  of  the  string. 

"Touch."  ''Touch,"  of  course  is  an  impor- 
tant element  in  the  control  of  the  exact  shape  of 
the  wave-form.  Tone-color  or  character,  as  we 
are   aware,"*   depends   upon   the  wave-form,   and 

1  f^upra.  Chapter   IT. 

2  See  Cliapter  II,  "Resultant  Motion."  '     ' 

3  Cf.  Chapter  II. 


Sound-Board  and  Strings.  157 

that  means  upon  the  number  and  prominence  of 
the  concomitant  partials.  That,  in  turn,  from  the 
''touch"  point  of  view,  means  the  hammer  velocity 
in  connection  with  the  rebound  thereof.  That  is 
to  say,  control  over  the  wave-form  of  the  string, 
as  finally  emitted  through  the  medium  of  the 
sound-board,  rests,  so  far  as  concerns  the  per- 
former, upon  his  manner  of  manipulating  the  ham- 
mer so  as  to  vary  the  length  of  time  required  for  it 
to  travel  from  the  position  of  rest  to  the  string, 
and  back ;  or  in  other  words,  and  more  roughly,  in 
the  force  and  rapidity  of  the  actual  excitation  of 
the  string. 

Sound-Board  Vibration  Demonstrated.  So 
much  for  hammer  and  string;  but  how  about  the 
sound-board?  I  have  indicated  that  the  part 
played  by  the  board  is  not  only  important  but 
decisive.  This  may  be  experimentally  demon- 
strated. Suppose  that  a  long  thin  rod  of  spruce 
wood  is  made  up,  sufficiently  long  to  extend  the 
length  of  one  room  and  into  another.  Spruce 
is  the  wood  from  which  piano  sound-boards  are 
made.  Suppose  that  one  end  of  this  rod  is 
doweled  into  one  of  the  ribs  of  a  piano  sound- 
board so  that  it  touches  the  rear  surface  of  the 
board  and  thence  runs  into  the  next  room,  all  in- 


158  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

termediate  doors  being  stopped  off  so  that  ordi- 
narily no  sound  will  come  from  one  room  to  the 
other.  If  the  open  end  of  the  rod  be  now  brought 
into  contact  with  the  sound-board  of  another 
piano,  leaving  the  dampers  of  this  second  instru- 
ment raised,  the  tone  of  the  first  piano  when  played 
will  be  reproduced  note  for  note  but  in  diminished 
volume,  from  the  surface  of  the  second  sound- 
board. The  same  experiment  may  be  made  by 
using  a  violin  as  the  ''receiving  instrument." 
This  experiment  shows  that  the  sound-board  of 
the  piano  has  independently  the  power  of  vibrat- 
ing in  all  the  extraordinary  complex  of  motions 
that  arise,  not  only  as  the  resultant  wave  of  the 
complex  motion  of  one  string,  but  as  the  combined 
resultant — the  resultant  of  resultants — of  the  mo- 
tions of  many  simultaneously  excited  strings. 
The  motion  of  a  string  may  be  compared  with  the 
operation  of  several  forces  pulling  in  different 
directions.  The  resultant  of  these  forces — that 
is,  the  direction  in  which  the  net  value  of  all  the 
forces  when  compounded,  is  seen  to  lie — can  be 
determined  mathematically.  So  also  we  know  that 
the  complex  vibration  of  one  string  combines  into 
a  single  complex  or  resultant  curve.^     And  so  also 

1  Supra,  Cliapter  H, 


Sound-Board  and  Strings.  159 

we  can  see  that  the  complex  vibrations  of  two 
strings,  if  impressed  together  upon  a  sound-board, 
must  combine  into  a  further  resultant;  a  process 
which  can  be  carried  on  indefinitely.  Thus,  whilst 
we  see  on  the  one  hand  that  the  sound-board  must 
be  capable  of  complex  forms  of  motion,  we  can  also 
perceive  that  the  mechanical  realization  of  such 
forms  is  neither  inconceivable  nor  even  particu- 
larly difficult  to  apprehend. 

Analogy  of  the  Monochord.  If  the  suggestions 
I  have  made  here  have  any  value,  they  must  tend 
to  give  us  a  reasonably  clear  conception  of  a  theory 
which  may  account  for  the  peculiar  operation  of 
the  sound-board  and  may  fix  definitely  its  place 
in  the  economy  of  the  piano.  If,  in  fact,  we  keep 
steadily  in  mind  the  truth  that  no  matter  how 
many  strings  may  be  struck  at  any  given  moment, 
nor  how  consequently  complex  their  motions  may 
be,  these  motions  always  must  express  themselves 
on  the  sound-board  as  a  single  resultant  motion, 
it  becomes  clear  that  such  resultant  motion  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  tone;  and  nothing  else. 

In  the  circumstances,  we  may,  without  unduly 
stretching  the  comparison,  suggest  an  analogy 
with  the  monochord.  This,  as  we  all  know,  is  a 
single  string  stretched  between  a  hitch  pin  and  a 


160  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

tuning  pin  over  a  small  sound-board,  with  a  move- 
able bridge  which  can  be  shifted  so  as  to  change 
the  vibrating  length  of  the  string  whenever  and 
however  desired.  Now,  this  string  has  in  itself 
the  possibility  of  producing  all  the  tones  which 
can  be  had  by  shifting  the  bridge.  No  matter  how 
the  bridge  be  placed  and  therefore  no  matter  what 
segment  of  the  string  be  vibrating  at  any  time, 
it  is  the  same  string.  The  same  string  vibrates 
always,  but  the  moving  of  the  bridge  selects  the 
particular  segment  which  is  affected.  So  also 
with  the  sound-board  and  strings  of  the  piano. 
The  sound-board  is  a  true  vibrator,  whose  opera- 
tions are  representable  as  resultant  motions  of 
the  string  vibrations.  The  strings  are  selecting 
vibrators,  impressing  their  own  individual  vibra- 
tions upon  the  sound-board,  either  singly  or  in 
combination.  When  a  single  impression  is  made, 
the  board  repeats  the  motion  exactly  as  trans- 
mitted to  it.  When  a  complex  of  impressions  is 
made,  this  develops  instantly  into  a  resultant  mo- 
tion, compounded  of  all  the  motions;  or  as  we 
might  better  say,  being  the  geometrical  sum  of 
all  the  motions. 

Sound-Board  a  True   Vibrator.    If  this  be  a 
plausible  hypothesis,  from  the  mathematical  view- 


Sound-Board  and  Strings.  161 

point,  it  is  just  as  plausible  mechanically,  for  while 
it  may  be  hard  to  conceive  the  sound-board  mak- 
ing a  thousand  different  kinds  of  motion  at  once, 
it  is  not  hard  to  conceive  it  making  a  single  re- 
sultant motion;  nor  is  there  any  mechanical  rea- 
son why  it  should  not.  For  if  we  consider  that 
the  sound-board  is  a  table  of  spruce,  forcibly 
arched  by  ribbing  on  its  back,  and  then  so  secured 
to  the  piano  as  to  be  always  in  a  high  state  of 
tension,  and  if  further  we  keep  in  mind  that  the 
impressibility  of  the  board  is  immensely  increased 
through  its  close  contact  with  the  great  battery 
of  high-tension  strings  communicating  with  it 
through  the  bridges,  we  can  see  that  we  have  in  a 
well-made  piano  sound-board  nothing  less  than  an 
extremely  sensitive  vibrator,  a  whole  musical  in- 
strument, ready  to  sing  as  soon  as  it  is  kindled  into 
life  by  the  operation  of  the  property  of  resonance. 
The  sound-board  of  course  is  a  resonance  instru- 
ment, and  it  is  only  necessary  to  understand  just 
what  this  phenomenon  means  in  Sound,  to  com- 
plete our  apprehension  of  the  sound-board's  be- 
havior in  use. 

Resonance.  As  I  said  above,  the  sound-board 
is  the  true  tone-maker,  whilst  the  strings  are  the 
selectors  or  selecting  vibrators.     The  board  is  the 


162  Modern  Piano  Timing. 

central  telephone  station,  while  the  strings  are 
respectively  the  various  subscribers'  entering  and 
outgoing  lines.  The  strings  are  the  nerves,  the 
W  board  is  the  brain.  A  dozen  analogies  suggest 
themselves.  But,  in  any  case,  we  cannot  stop 
here.  We  must  know  how  the  board  can  receive 
the  impressions  which  are  transformed  into  re- 
sultant motions.  What,  in  fact,  is  this  Reso- 
nance 1 

Resonance  is  the  property  which  sonorous  bod- 
ies possess  of  impressing  their  vibrations  upon 
other  sonorous  bodies.  In  the  case  of  the  tone- 
emission  apparatus  of  the  piano,  the  sound-board 
is  placed  in  contact  with  the  battery  of  strings 
stretched  above  it,  which  pass  over  wooden 
bridges  glued  on  the  surface  of  the  board,  pressing 
upon  these  latter  with  a  heavy  down  bearing.  The 
strings  are  brought  over  the  bridges  between  pins 
which  impart  to  them  also  a  side-bearing  as  they 
cross.  Thus  it  may  be  seen  that  the  sound-board 
is  in  the  most  favorable  condition  to  receive  any 
vibrations  that  may  originate  in  the  strings.  If 
it  can  be  shown  that  the  vibrations  of  a  string  can 
actually  be  imparted  to  the  sound-board,  and  can 
cause  that  apparatus  to  undergo  a  resultant  vi- 
bratory motion  compounded  from  these   vibra- 


Sound-Board  and  Strings.  163 

tions,  then  we  shall  have  the  theory  of  the  sound- 
board demonstrated. 

Now,  since  resonance  is  a  property  possessed  by 
all  substances  which  may  form  sonorous  bodies, 
it  will  be  understood  that  we  are  not  here  discuss- 
ing any  uncommon  quality  of  the  piano  sound- 
board. Seeing  that  the  physical  nearest  cause 
of  sound  sensations  is  the  performance  of  vibra- 
tory motion  by  solid  bodies,  it  follows  that  reso- 
nance must  take  place  wherever  that  vibration  can 
be  transmitted.  If  then  we  have  a  body  of  some 
material  thrown  into  vibration,  it  is  easy  to  see 
that  all  other  bodies  of  similar  material  in  con- 
tact with  it  must  also  vibrate.  Whether  their 
frequency  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  original  body 
depends  upon  the  comparative  masses  and  other 
qualities  of  the  two.  All  elastic  substances  are 
capable  of  transmitting  vibrations,  themselves 
partaking  of  the  vibratory  motion  in  the  process ; 
and  so  also  if  the  two  bodies  in  contact  be  of  dif- 
ferent material,  it  follows  that  vibratory  motion 
may  be  transmitted  from  one  to  the  other,  so  long 
as  both  be  elastic  enough  and  contact  be  main- 
tained. Actual  physical  contact,  indeed,  may 
sometimes,  under  favorable  conditions,  be  elimi- 
nated, and  the  atmosphere  alone  be  competent  to 


164  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

transmit  the  pulse  from  one  body  to  the  other,  as 
it  does  from  the  body  to  the  ear.  This  latter  po- 
tentiality is  translated  into  fact  only  when  each 
of  the  bodies  is  very  favorably  situated  for  the 
purpose  and  extremely  sensitive  to  vibratory  im- 
pulse. The  resonance  boxes  of  two  adjacent  tun- 
ing forks  furnish  an  example  of  these  latter  quali- 
ties. 

We  see  therefore  that  there  is  no  mechanical  or 
physical  reason  why  the  sound-board  should  not 
at  least  receive  the  vibrations  of  the  strings.  The 
question  therefore  becomes  this;  does  the  sound- 
board reproduce  them  after  it  has  received  them; 
and  how? 

Composition  of  Impulses.  We  have  already 
seen  (supra)  that  the  most  satisfactory  hypothesis 
of  the  sound-board's  functions  is  that  which  con- 
siders it  as  a  true  tone-maker;  but  the  mind  does 
not  always  grasp  easily  the  idea  of  the  apparently 
stiff  and  unresponsive  sound-board  reproducing 
and  amplifying  the  complex  vibrations  of  the 
strings.  Yet  a  simple  illustration  will  show  that 
this  is  quite  possible. 

Suppose  we  secure  somewhere  a  heavy  ball,  or 
a  metal  weight,  like  a  ten  pound  scale  weight,  and 
suspend  it  from  a  cord  so  as  to  form  a  pendulum. 


Sound-Board  and  Strings.  165 

If  now  the  cord  be  gently  agitated  until  it  settles 
into  its  normal  period  of  vibration,  we  can  deter- 
mine just  what  its  natural  frequency  is.  Hav- 
ing done  this,  we  may  allow  the  pendulum  to 
come  to  rest  again,  and  then  begin  to  direct  against 
it  puffs  of  air  from  the  mouth,  timing  these  so  as 
to  correspond  with  the  vibratory  motion  of  the 
pendulum.  For  several  seconds  this  will  have  no 
effect,  but  if  the  work  be  kept  up,  gradually  it  will 
be  observed  that  the  weight  begins  to  stir.  Let 
the  work  go  on,  being  careful  to  blow  on  the  weight 
only  when  its  direction  of  motion  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  breath;  that  is  to  say  to  blow  on  it 
only  when  it  is  moving  away  from  one.  By  de- 
grees, if  the  puffs  of  air  are  timed  as  directed,  the 
weight  will  begin  to  swing  back  and  forth  in  its 
regular  period  and  at  its  regular  amplitude  or 
width  of  motion.  Thus  we  have  an  experimental 
demonstration  of  the  mathematical  fact  that  if  a 
series  of  small  equal  forces  be  periodically  ap- 
plied to  a  given  resistance  through  a  given  elapsed 
time,  at  the  end  of  that  time  the  total  force  ap- 
plied has  been  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  small  forces 
delivered  in  one  unit  of  time  corresponding  to 
the  period  of  one  force.  To  take  a  concrete  in- 
stance, if  a  series  of  taps,  each  one  ounce  in  weight, 


166  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

be  delivered  at  the  rate  of  one  per  second  until, 
say,  160  of  them  have  been  made,  the  resistance 
has  been  operated  on  with  a  force,  at  the  end  of 
160  seconds,  equal  to  a  force  of  ten  pounds  (160 
ounces),  operating  through  one  second.  Thus  we 
see  also  that  it  is  quite  possible  for  even  the  most 
delicate  and  minute  vibratory  motions  not  only 
to  be  imparted  to  a  stiff  sound-board  but  also  to 
throw  that  board  into  resultant  motion.  For  if  we 
consider  that  the  middle  tones  of  the  piano  are 
produced  by  frequencies  running  from  200  to  800 
vibrations  per  second  we  can  easily  see  that  what 
is  possible  in  the  extreme  case  here  described  is 
more  than  possible — ^nay,  is  inevitable — in  the  case 
of  the  specially  prepared,  highly  elastic  and  ten- 
sioned  sound-board,  especially  when  we  remember 
that  the  strings,  being  struck,  are  set  in  relatively 
violent  agitation,  and  communicate  a  relatively 
more  powerful  vibratory  impression  than  can  be 
had  by  blowing  with  the  breath,  on  a  far  more  re- 
sponsive resistance  than  the  weight,  and  at  many 
times  the  possible  blowing  speed. 

Considerations  like  these,  although  they  do  not 
actually  demonstrate  the  hypothesis  of  sound- 
board behavior  here  adopted,  do  strengthen  it  and 
tend  to  confirm  it. 


Sound-Board  and  Strings.  167 

To  sum  up,  we  may  say  that  the  sound-board  and 
strings  of  the  piano  together  constitute  the  tone- 
emission  apparatus,  that  the  sound-board  is  the 
main  vibrator  or  tone-maker,  that  the  strings  are 
the  selecting  vibrators,  and  that  the  vibrations 
of  the  sound-board  are  resultant  single  vibrations 
due  to  composition  of  the  complex  of  vibrations 
proceeding  from  the  strings,  just  as  the  latter 
themselves  are  resultants  of  the  complex  of  seg- 
mental vibrations  which  take  place  in  the  string 
when  it  is  struck.  I  do  not  claim  for  this  hypo- 
thesis that  it  is  above  criticism,  but  I  am  certain 
that  it  meets  the  facts  more  fairly  than  any  other 
I  have  yet  seen. 

In  making  this  analysis  I  have  wished  to  pre- 
pare the  reader's  mind  for  the  critical  examina- 
tion of  sound-board  construction,  and  especially  to 
show  reasons  for  some  of  the  peculiar  methods 
that  characterize  that  construction  and  have  been 
worked  out  by  piano  makers  experimenting  often 
in  the  dark.  The  problem  of  practical  construc- 
tion is  to  provide  a  resonance  table  that  will  not 
merely  take  up  in  resultant  vibration  the  im- 
pressed vibrations  of  the  strings,  but  also  will 
properly  amplify  these  as  well  as  reproduce  their 
forms.    In  other  words,  it  is  not  enough  for  the 


168  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

sound-board  to  reproduce  the  characteristics  of 
the  tone,  but  to  amplify  it;  make  it  loud  enough. 
We  need  quantity  as  well  as  quality. 

Amplification.  Amplification  of  the  wave- 
forms is  of  course  a  natural  consequence  flowing 
from  the  large  mass  of  the  sound-board  and  the 
consequent  relatively  great  mass  of  adjacent  air 
which  can  be  put  in  vibration.  The  tones  origi- 
nally impressed  by  the  wave-forms  of  the  strings 
are  therefore  intensified. 

Coloration  of  Tone  hy  the  Sound-Board.  We 
know  that  inasmuch  as  most  piano  strings  are 
struck  well  above  the  seventh  node,  the  seventh 
partial  is  a  definite  member  of  the  partial  tone  pro- 
cession in  the  piano  string's  wave-form.  The 
presence  of  this  partial  tone,  however,  is,  on  a 
thoroughly  well-made  piano  at  least,  scarcely  per- 
ceptible in  its  influence  on  the  tone  color,  although 
when  it  is  markedly  present  in  any  other  tonal 
combination,  its  tendency  to  promote  harshness 
is  at  once  discerned.  This  partial  and  its  mul- 
tiples, as  well  as  the  ninth  and  others  above  it 
which  are  not  eliminated  in  the  upper  regions  of 
the  piano  on  account  of  the  high  striking  point, 
would  have  a  much  more  distinctly  hardening  ef- 
fect on  the  tone  than  is  the  case,  if  it  were  not  for 


Sound-Board  and  Strings.  169 

the  fact  that  a  properly  made  sound-board  un- 
doubtedly modifies  these  and  other  odd-numbered 
partial  tones,  at  least  as  to  their  intensity.  Thus 
we  have  another  function  of  the  sound^board  which 
must  be  considered,  namely  the  tone-qualifying 
function. 

Proper  Vibration  of  the  Sound-Board.  It  is 
evident  from  what  has  already  been  said  that  the 
piano  sound-board  is  a  sensitive  vibrating  instru- 
ment and  therefore  must  possess  a  proper  period 
of  vibration  all  its  own.  That  this  is  so  is  plain 
from  the  facts  of  the  case.  The  board  is  arched, 
or  crowned,  by  means  of  ribs  planed  arch-wise  and 
glued  to  the  back  of  the  board,  so  as  to  draw  the 
front  surface  into  tension  and  press  the  rear  into 
compression.  It  is  then  fastened  into  the  wooden 
back  of  the  piano  by  being  glued  along  its  outer 
edges,  so  that  it  remains  permanently  in  such  a 
way  that  it  is  continually  in  a  "live"  condition, 
ready  to  vibrate.  But  it  is  also  necessary  to  take 
into  account  the  fact  that  the  piano  sound-board 
is  covered  by  an  iron  plate,  which  bears  the  strain 
of  the  stretched  strings.  If  we  examine  the  iron 
plate  and  sound-board  of  a  piano  after  stringing, 
we  shall  see  that  the  entire  structure  thus  formed, 
as  well  as  the  wooden  back,  is  in  a  condition  partly 


170  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

of  compression  and  partly  of  tension.  Hence  tlie 
whole  structure  has  its  own  regular  period  of  vi- 
bration and  its  own  proper  tone. 

The  object  of  sound-board  design  therefore  must 
be  to  take  advantage  of  the  proper  vibration  of 
the  board,  plate  and  back  together,  and  to  see 
that  the  relative  importance  of  each  element  is  re- 
tained, without  any  one  being  unduly  prominent. 
The  fact  is,  of  course,  that  since  the  sound-board 
is  the  true  tone-maker,  and  since  the  iron  plate 
and  back  are  in  such  close  contact  with  it,  each  of 
the  two  latter  exert  a  constant  modifying  influence 
on  the  vibratory  activity  of  the  board.  In  short, 
the  various  materials  of  which  the  back-structure 
(board,  plate  and  back)  are  made,  all  exert  their 
individual  influences,  so  that  the  ultimate  vibra- 
tory period  and  composition  of  the  wave-form 
proper  to  the  sound-board  arises  out  of  all  these 
forces  compounded.  Hence  the  question  of  the 
dimensions  and  design  of  each  of  these  elements 
is  almost  equally  important. 

I  have  made  this  digression  because  it  is  im- 
portant that  the  tuner  should  understand  the  rea- 
sons for  differences  in  tone-quality  as  between 
various  pianos.  I  shall  not  go  into  small  detail 
regarding  the  design  of  these  elements  because 


Sound-Board  amd  Strings.  171 

that  is  the  province  of  a  technical  treatise  on 
piano  construction  and  has  been  treated  else- 
where.^ The  following  remarks  are  appended, 
however,  treating  generally  of  the  influence  of  the 
parts  mentioned. 

Influence  of  the  Iron  Plate.  The  cast  iron  of 
the  plate  is  of  course  considerably  stiifer  and 
more  rigid  than  wood.  Its  weight-for-bulk  is  also 
much  greater ;  or,  in  other  words,  its  specific  grav- 
ity is  represented  by  a  higher  index.  Now  it  is 
well  known  that  the  vibratory  form  of  any  body 
which  is  enough  under  tension  to  induce  suscepti- 
bility to  vibrative  influences  is  modified  by  the 
factors  of  density  and  rigidity.  On  the  whole,  any 
increase  in  density  and  rigidity  tends  to  produce 
a  wave  form  in  which  the  higher  partials  are  un- 
damped. The  more  '*  yielding"  structure  of 
wood,  as  it  were,  has  a  damping  effect  on  the  less 
powerful  partials,  or  rather,  perhaps,  is  incapa- 
ble of  so  elaborate  a  subdivision  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  string  vibrations.  Hence  the  wood 
of  the  sound-board  will,  if  left  to  itself,  act  as  a 
damper  on  all  the  feebler  partials  of  the  strings, 
however  many  may  have  been  left  after  the  re- 
bound of  the  hammer.     The  tone  quality,  there- 

1  Cf .  "Theory  and  Practice  of  Pianoforte  Building." 


172  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

fore,  is  founded  on  a  partial-tone  series  scarcely 
extending  above  the  eighth,  with  perhaps  a  trace 
of  the  multiples  of  the  even  numbered  partials. 
Iron,  however,  modifies  this  procession  by  taking 
up  the  higher  partial  vibrations  of  the  strings  and 
reproducing  them  in  amplified  form.  At  least 
this  is  the  most  plausible  explanation  of  the  plate's 
activities,  for  it  is  certain  that  the  more  iron  we 
have  in  close  touch  with  the  strings,  at  the  ex- 
tremities and  on  the  bearings  thereof  as  well  as 
around  the  sound-board  area,  the  harder  and  more 
'* metallic"  is  the  tone;  which  of  course  means  the 
existence  in  the  tonal  complex  of  high  dissonant 
partials.  Thus  it  is  plain  that  the  iron  plate 
should  be  so  designed  as  not  to  overload  the  struc- 
ture, and  especially  so  as  not  to  usurp  all  the 
functions  of  bearing.  Wooden  upper-bearing 
bridges  are  often  useful  in  a  piano  which  otherwise 
would  produce  a  harsh  and  metallic  tone.  Ex- 
cessive bracing  or  barring  and  undue  massiveness 
are  also  bad  features.  In  fact,  we  may  say  that 
the  plate  should  be  as  light  as  possible ;  the  lighter 
the  better  so  long  as  it  is  strong  enough  to  stand 
the  string  strains.  This  of  course  greatly  de- 
pends on  the  precise  tensions  at  which  the  strings 
are  stretched,  which  again  depends  on  the  dimen- 


Sound-Board  and  Strings.  173 

sions  of  the  strings.  But,  as  we  shall  shortly  see, 
scientific  design  tends  to  emancipate  us  from  the 
false  gods  of  excessive  tension,  hardness  of  wire 
and  "bing-bing"  tone.^ 

Influence  of  the  back.  The  technical  impossi- 
bility of  producing  an  iron  plate  of  the  ordinary 
thin-sheet  type,  strong  enough  to  bear  the  entire 
strain  of  sound-board  and  strings,  without  at  the 
same  time  being  too  enormously  heavy,  has  neces- 
sitated the  use  of  a  very  massive  wooden  back.^ 
This  back,  of  which  I  have  already  given  some 
description,  is  extremely  large  and  clumsy,  and 
necessarily  so.^  Its  effect  on  tone  can  only  be  de- 
scribed as  deadening;  for  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  natural  vibrations  of  sound-board  and  plate 
are  very  much  damped  by  the  drag  of  the  back. 
On  the  whole,  therefore,  we  can  only  wish  the  ut- 
most success  to  the  inventors  who  have  been  try- 
ing during  the  last  twenty-five  years  to  furnish 
us  with  practical  substitutes  for  the  wooden  back ; 
although  it  should  not  be  overlooked  that  the  plate 
vibrations  are  not  to  be  encouraged  so  much  as 
those  proper  to  the  sound-board.  The  inventions 
of  Wm.  Bauer  of  Chicago  point  the  way  to  a  suc- 

1  See  infra,  String  Dimensions,  et  seq.,  in  the  present  chapter. 

2  Cf.  supra,  Chapter  VI.  3  See  the  previous  chapter. 


174  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

cessful  solution  of  this  problem,  unless  I  am  much 
mistaken. 

Dimensions  of  the  sound-hoard.  The  sound- 
board is  limited,  of  course,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  piano,  and  therefore  no  particular  rules  can 
be  given  for  length  and  breadth,  or  even  for  shape. 
It  is  to  be  observed  however  that  the  size  of  the 
piano  and  the  tension  and  other  features  of  the 
scale  will  require  parallel  modifications  in  the 
size  and  thickness  of  the  board ;  that  is  in  the  vi- 
brating area.  But  this  is  a  matter  which,  in  the 
nature  of  the  case,  must  be  determined  by  experi- 
ment. The  point  is  that  the  board  must  be  free 
to  vibrate,  in  the  particular  situation  created  by 
the  other  conditions  of  the  piano.  If  it  is  too 
heavy  it  will  vibrate  feebly  on  light  playing,  whilst 
with  heavy  playing  its  vibratory  form  will  incline 
to  be  too  much  in  its  own  proper  period,  thus 
smothering  the  resultant  vibrations  selected  by  the 
strings.  If  it  is  too  light  it  will  respond  in  light 
playing  too  readily  and  so  again  its  proper  vi- 
bration will  intrude,  whilst  on  heavy  playing  it 
will  be  unable  to  respond  strongly  enough  to  pro- 
vide sufficient  support  to  the  strings.  Thus  the 
thickness  must  be  graduated  to  the  size.  In  prac- 
tice piano  makers  have  found  it  well  to  vary  the 


Sound-Board  and  Strings.  175 

thickness  of  the  board  between  the  two  extremi- 
ties. Thicknesses  running  from  %"  in  the  treble 
to  Ya:"  in  the  bass  are  usual.  But  these  are  ex- 
perimental matters  and  can  be  determined  only 
experimentally. 

Ribbing.  The  sound-board  must  be  ribbed  in 
order  to  stiffen  its  surface  and  enable  it  to  resist 
the  various  strains  put  on  it.  These  strains  are 
(1)  the  down  bearing  of  the  strings;  (2)  the  ten- 
sion of  the  strings;  (3)  the  opposed  tension  and 
compression  of  upper  and  under  surfaces  due  to 
the  crowning.  The  crown  is  necessary  in  order  to 
give  a  proper  bearing  and  also  to  resist  the  down- 
ward pressure. 

It  is  likewise  useful  in  promoting  the  necessary 
tension  for  free  vibration.  The  ribs  are  planed 
into  curved  surfaces  where  they  are  glued  on  to 
the  board,  so  as  to  produce  the  crown,  which  also 
is  further  promoted  by  being  glued  on  to  slanted 
''linings,"  as  they  are  called,  in  the  back  struc- 
ture. It  is  customary  to  use  from  12  to  14  ribs 
and  these  should  be  placed  so  as  best  to  sustain 
the  strains  without  being  too  heavy  or  having  too 
much  of  a  damping  effect.  No  other  rules  can  or 
need  be  given  in  this  book.^ 

1  For   a   general   discussion   of   these   points   cf.    "Theory   and 
Practice  of  Pianoforte  Building." 


176  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

Bridges.  The  position  and  curvature  of  the 
bridges  are  entirely  governed  by  the  string  de- 
sign. No  special  descriptions  therefore  need  be 
given  here,  except  to  remark  that  it  has  become 
customary  to  build  up  the  bridge  structure  of  cross 
banded  veneers  of  hard  wood,  so  as  to  avoid  any 
tendency  to  split.  The  pins,  which  are  driven  into 
the  bridge  to  give  side-bearing  to  the  strings,  rep- 
resent an  archaic  survival  from  past  days,  in  fact 
from  the  days  of  the  harpsichord,  and  there  is 
no  doubt  that  it  would  be  a  great  deal  better  to 
use  an  agraffe,  or  drilled  metal  stud,  such  as  is 
found  on  the  upper  bearing  bars  of  grand  pianos 
(and  in  some  uprights  also).  False  beats  in 
strings  are  often  generated  by  faults  in  the  pin- 
ning, whereby  twists  in  the  wire  are  produced. 

The  bridges  must  be  high  enough  to  give  a 
good  down  bearing  and  wide  enough  for  a  good 
side  bearing.  They  should  never  be  cut  to  permit 
the  treble  brace  on  the  plate  to  pass  through, 
but  the  plate  design  should  be  modified  accord- 
ingly. A  cut  treble  bridge  always  means  a  bridge 
that  does  not  transmit  the  string  vibrations  prop- 
erly to  the  bridge,  and  invariably  involves  bad 
tone,  and  rapid  break-down.  The  greatest  enemy 
to  the  conservation  of  piano  tone  is  the  degenera- 


Sound-Board  and  Strings.  177 

tion  of  the  board  under  string  pressure ;  a  process 
promoted  by  a  cut  bridge.  Tuners  may  take  it  as 
true  that  a  cut  bridge  means  a  bad  piano. 

Bridges  should  not  be  brought  too  near  the  edges 
of  the  sound-board,  lest  the  elasticity  of  the  board 
in  response  to  the  vibrations  transmitted  by  the 
strings  be  rendered  valueless  for  those  situated  at 
the  ends  of  the  bridges.  In  tight  places,  if  the 
string  length  is  to  be  preserved  (as  always  it 
ought  to  be),  an  extension  bridge  may  save  the 
day,  as  may  be  observed  interestingly  in  the  small 
4  foot,  8  inch  Brambach  grand,  at  the  bass  end 
of  the  treble  bridge.  Bass  bridges  can  usually  be 
treated  best  on  the  extension  system,  as  bass 
strings  are  nearly  always  too  short  anyhow. 

These  remarks  will  be  principally  useful  to  the 
reader  of  this  book  in  making  clear  to  him  the 
cause  of  piano  tone-production  and  the  reasons  for 
differences  in  tone  quality  between  pianos  of  ap- 
parently equal  grade.  I  shall  now  briefly  con- 
sider the  string-scale. 

Functions  of  the  String.  In  Chapter  II  I  have 
discussed  at  length  the  physical  properties  of 
piano  strings.  It  is  now  only  necessary  to  remark 
that  the  object  of  the  strings  is  to  select  the  par- 
ticular wave-form  which  the  sound-board  is  to 


178  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

amplify.  The  wave-form  must  first  be  created 
by  the  string  vibration;  and  therefore  the  dimen- 
sions, weight  and  method  of  stringing  are  of  the 
utmost  importance. 

String  Dimensions.  Elsewhere  I  have  made  a 
tolerably  complete  study  of  string  dimensions/ 
and  here,  therefore,  I  may  be  brief.  The  propor- 
tion of  pitch  from  octave  to  octave  is  as  1:2  but 
since  strings  have  weight  and  weight  increases 
with  length,  this  proportion  will  not  hold  good  in 
designing  string  lengths.  Piano  makers,  attempt- 
ing to  compensate  for  the  factors  of  weight  and 
tension,  have  produced  various  scalings  of  string 
length  ranging  from  the  proportions  1 : 1.875  to 
1 : 1.9375  for  each  octave.  In  other  words,  instead 
of  doubling  the  string  lengths  at  each  octave, 
each  string  is  made  1%  or  1^%6  as  long  as  its 
octave  above.  Intermediate  lengths  should  be 
worked  out,  one  by  one,  in  proportion.  Practice 
dictates  almost  universally  a  length  of  2  inches 
for  the  highest  treble  strings. 

Gages.  It  is  a  very  clumsy  and  altogether  un- 
pardonable sin  to  change  the  gages  of  wire  used  in 
a  scale  when  putting  on  new  strings,  unless  it  is 
obvious  that  some  fatal  defect  in  tension  propor- 

1  Cf .  "Theory  and  Practice  of  Pianoforte  Building,"  p.  48  et  seq. 


Sound-Board  and  Strings.  179 

tions  exists.  Evenness  of  tension  is  a  desider- 
atum always  aimed  at,  but  not  often  attained; 
mainly  through  lack  of  inclination  to  calculate 
closely.  But  the  tuner  should  very  carefully  fol- 
low the  gage  of  wire  when  re-stringing,  for  it  is 
usually  to  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  piano  as 
strung  represents  the  best  gaging  that  could  be 
devised,  considering  its  scale.  The  wire  sizes 
used  in  piano  making  range  from  gage  12  (some- 
times used  in  the  highest  treble),  down  to  gage 
26  for  core  wire  on  the  heaviest  bass  strings  on 
large  pianos.  In  determining  what  string  gages 
to  use,  piano  makers  should  attempt  to  obtain  an 
even  pull  for  each  string  from  end  to  end  of  the 
scale.  On  the  whole,  the  average  strain  of  160 
pounds  per  string,  which  is  common  to  the  mass 
of  American  pianos,  is  too  high,  and  a  general 
lowering  of  gage  would  be  a  good  thing  in  all 
probability.  The  high  tension  piano  has  never 
fulfilled  the  promises  so  lavishly  made  for  it 
thirty-five  years  ago.  Heavy  wire  means  higher 
tension.  Tensions  are  already  too  high,  which 
simply  means  hard,  thin,  metallic  tone,  superficial 
glitter  and  coldness.  The  modern  piano  already 
has  much  to  answer  for  in  this  respect. 

Striking  Point.     This  is  another  matter  not  al- 


180  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

ways  considered  with  sufficient  care.  In  a  good 
piano  the  point  at  which  its  hammer  touches  each 
string  is  chosen  scientifically,  for  there  is  no  more 
important  detail  in  piano  design  than  this.  I  have 
already  discussed  this  subject  in  an  earlier  chapter 
(Chapter  II),  but  it  may  here  be  observed  that 
the  tone  quality  of  a  piano  is  very  closely  asso- 
ciated with  the  position  of  the  hammers  in  relation 
to  the  strings.  The  tendency  in  modern  pianos 
is  to  make  the  striking  point  excessively  high. 
For  my  part  I  should  like  to  see  a  return  to  the 
ancient  fashion  of  low  tension  strings  and  low 
striking  points.  Of  course,  as  we  all  should  real- 
ize by  now,  the  necessary  tonal  re-inforcement  of 
the  short  upper  strings  must  be  brought  about  by 
raising  the  striking  point.  But  this  point  also  is 
treated  elsewhere  (Chapter  II).  Commercial 
pianos  take  all  these  things  for  granted  with  a 
refreshing  but  somewhat  disastrous  naivete  how- 
ever, and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  readers  will  realize 
that  in  these  details  and  the  care  that  is  taken 
over  them  rests  the  difference  between  good  and 
bad  piano  making. 

Bass  Strings.  The  use  of  steel,  brass  or  cop- 
per winding  for  the  purpose  of  overweighting 
strings  artificially,  so  as  to  make  up  for  necessary 


Sound-Board  and  Strings.  181 

shortening  of  true  length  requirements,  is  as  old 
as  piano  making,  and  older;  nor  has  any  special 
improvement  been  made  in  the  last  half  century 
save  as  to  closer  winding  and  lessening  of  slippage. 
It  is  still  far  too  much  the  fashion  for  piano  mak- 
ers merely  to  send  to  the  winders  a  pattern  show- 
ing their  string  lengths,  leaving  the  weight  of 
the  strings  to  chance,  skill  or  tradition.  In  fact, 
of  course,  the  weight  of  a  covered  bass  string  is 
just  as  important  as  the  length  of  a  treble  string ; 
for  reasons  which  must  by  now  be  apparent  to 
every  reader  of  this  book.  It  is  therefore  most 
advisable  to  consider  the  question  of  weight,  with 
its  intimate  relation  to  tension  whenever  consider- 
ing the  improvement  of  the  tone  of  a  piano  by  put- 
ting on  new  bass  strings.^ 

Copper  vs  Steel.  On  the  whole  I  think  it  is 
fairly  well  established  that  copper  winding  is  bet- 
ter than  steel  for  bass  strings ;  for  the  reason  that 
the  greater  specific  gravity  of  copper  makes  a  thin- 
ner wire  available  to  produce  a  given  weighting. 
Excessive  bulk  is  to  be  avoided  in  bass  string  mak- 
ing.    Of  course,  copper  tarnishes  and  in  moist 

1  Consult,  for  complete  discussion  of  these  points,  "Theory  and 
Practice  of  Pianoforte  Building"  (p.  48  et  seq.) ,  and  to  some  ex- 
tent Chapter  II  of  this  book. 


182  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

climates  gets  covered  with  verdigris,  perhaps  more 
quickly  than  the  tinned  steel  wire  rusts;  but  I 
doubt  whether  the  difference  in  favor  of  steel  is 
enough  to  justify  any  preference,  especially  as,  for 
the  reasons  above  noted,  copper  is  tonally  better. 
The  so-called  **iron"  covering  wire  is  to-day  usu- 
ally a  soft  steel  wire.^ 

To  sum  matters  up,  it  may  be  said  that  the  fol- 
lowing points  are  important  in  any  consideration 
of  a  string  scale. 

1.  Accurate  proportioning  of  lengths,  measured 
string  by  string. 

2.  Careful  graduation  of  wire  thickness  to  as- 
sure equality  of  tension  from  one  end  of  the  scale 
to  another. 

3.  Placement  on  the  bridges  with  enough  space 
for  each  string  to  vibrate  freely. 

4.  Avoidance  of  grounding  bridge  extremities 
right  on  the  edge  of  the  sound-board. 

5.  Avoidance  of  too  much  iron  on  bearing 
bridges. 

6.  Accurate  weighting  of  bass  strings. 

In  setting  down  these  facts  about  the  string 

1  But  the  subject  is  highly  controversial,  as  the  discussions  of 
the  Chicago  Conference  of  Piano  Technicians  in  1916  plainly 
showed. 


Sound-Board  and  Strings.  183 

scale,  I  have  purposely  avoided  going  into  com- 
plete details;  partly  because  the  vibrations  of  a 
piano  string  and  the  details  of  stringing  have  al- 
ready been  treated  in  this  book,  and  partly  be- 
cause I  have  elsewhere,  in  a  volume  still  in 
print,  also  discussed  them  quite  thoroughly.^ 
From  the  tuner's  view  point  all  other  necessary 
information  is  to  be  found  in  preceding  chapters. 
The  discussion  of  the  sound-board  has  been  pur- 
posely more  complete  because  accurate  informa- 
tion regarding  its  functions  is  not  so  readily  avail- 
able. Practical  details  are  discussed  in  the  chap- 
ter on  piano  repairing  {infra). 

1  "Theory  and  Practice  of  Pianoforte  Building,"  p.  28  et  seq.,  p. 
48  et  seq.,  etc. 


Chapter  VIII. 

THE   ACTION   AND   ITS   EEGULATION. 

The  movement  or  ''action"  which  translates  the 
motion  of  the  finger-impelled  key  of  the  piano  to 
the  hammer,  has  been  developed  within  the  past 
fifty  years  to  a  high  state  of  perfection.  Funda- 
mental work  was  mainly  done  in  Europe,  where 
Erard  established  the  principle  of  double  repeti- 
tion which  distinguishes  the  modern  grand  piano, 
and  Wornum  devised  the  tape-check  which  makes 
the  upright  action  efficient  in  repetition  and  re- 
liable in  attack.  Although  these  revolutionary  in- 
ventions date  back  about  eighty  years  from  the 
present  time  (1917)  the  enterprise  of  contempo- 
rary makers  was  unequal  to  any  immediate  recog- 
nition of  their  superiority,  so  that  for  a  long  time 
both  grand  and  upright  pianos  were  fitted  with 
less  efficient  movements ;  until  the  example  of  the 
more  courageous  amongst  them,  especially  in  the 
United  States,  showed  quite  unmistakably  the  im- 
mense superiority  of  double  repetition  and  the 

184 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.  185 

tape  check.  From  tliat  time  onwards — that  is  to 
say  during  the  last  thirty-five  years — the  use  of 
the  modern  grand  and  upright  piano  action  has  be- 
come universal  throughout  the  world,  while  we 
may  say  that,  so  far  as  concerns  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  there  is  almost  complete  standardiza- 
tion of  the  two  types.  Our  descriptions  therefore 
may  be  considered  as  being  of  general  applica- 
tion. 

Technical  Knowledge  of  Action  principles.  The 
experience  of  fifteen  years'  constant  contact  with 
piano  tuners  convinces  me  that  a  thorough  ac- 
quaintance with  the  scientific  and  mechanical  fea- 
tures of  the  piano  action  is  uncommon  amongst 
them,  save  in  a  most  elementary  sense.  I  am 
proposing  therefore  to  carry  out,  in  the  present 
chapter,  a  careful  mechanical  analysis  of  piano 
action,  followed  by  an  equally  careful  description 
of  its  modern  forms  and  a  general  explanation  of 
the  methods  of  regulating  these.  The  discussion 
will,  I  hope,  be  not  only  professionally  useful,  but 
the  reverse  of  tedious. 

Functions  of  the  Action.  The  functions  of  the 
piano  action  may  be  described  as  follows:  (1)  to 
convey  to  the  hammer  a  motion  which  shall  carry 
it  toward  the  string  for  the  purpose  of  inflicting  a 


186  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

blow  thereon,  (2)  to  trip  the  hammer  immediately 
before  its  actual  contact  with  the  string,  so  that  it 
instantly  rebounds  without  blocking  the  vibration, 
(3)  to  permit  the  repetition  of  the  hammer  blow 
without  complete  release  of  the  key  and  (4)  to 
damp  the  string  vibration  immediately  the  key  is 
released.  These  functions  are  of  course  identical 
for  all  forms  of  piano  action,  whether  horizontal 
or  vertical. 

It  is  obvious  from  what  has  been  said,  therefore, 
that  the  piano  action  may  conveniently  be  con- 
sidered as  divided  into  the  following  main  ele- 
ments (1)  the  hammer,  (2)  the  escapement,  (3) 
the  key  and  (4)  the  damper.  From  the  beginning 
all  piano  actions  have  possessed  the  1st,  3rd  and 
4th  of  these,  and  in  almost  all  cases  a  more  or  less 
satisfactory  mechanical  solution  of  the  2d  has  been 
carried  out.  The  method  of  arranging  these  ele- 
ments now  to  be  described  was  first  successfully 
worked  out  by  Erard  in  1821  for  the  horizontal, 
and  by  Wornum  in  1826  for  the  vertical,  piano. 
Let  us  now  consider  how  these  various  elements 
are  co-ordinated.  I  shall  begin  with  the  grand 
piano. 

The  Grand  Action.  Erard 's  principle  is  to-day 
universal  in  grand  piano  making,  but  the  particu- 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.  187 

lar  form  in  which  it  is  generally  carried  out  to- 
day was  developed  by  Herz  from  Erard.^  The  il- 
lustration given  herewith  (No.  19),  shows  a 
modem  grand  piano  action  manufactured  by 
Messrs.  Wessell,  Nickel  &  Gross  of  New  York. 
The  parts,  arrangement  of  parts  and  method  of 
regulation  are  quite  typical  of  the  very  best  Amer- 
ican practice. 

The  terminology  may  be  considered  as  correct 
and  as  following  the  practice  of  the  best  American 
action  makers. 

Operation  of  Grand  Action.  The  student 
should  now  follow  the  argument  by  means  of  a 
working  model,  or  by  the  simple  process  of  re- 
moving the  action  from  a  grand  piano  and  study- 
ing its  motions.  Pressing  slowly  the  key  of  the 
action  we  observe  that  the  rise  of  the  rear  end 
thereof  affects  the  capstan  (7)  which  lifts  the  wip- 
pen  (11)  through  contact  with  the  wipp en  knuckle 
(8).  On  this  wippen  are  pivoted  the  repetition 
lever  (19)  and  the  jack  (sometimes  called  '*fly") 
(13).  By  lifting  the  hammer  shank  (27)  up  and 
away  from  its  cushion  (24)  it  will  be  seen  that  the 

1  Cf.  "Theory  and  Practice  of  Pianoforte  Building,"  p.  96  et  seq., 
Encyclopedia  Britannica  article  "Pianoforte,"  9th,  10th  and  11th 
editions,  and  "History  of  the  American  Pianoforte,"  by  D.  Spillane. 


Figure  19. 

188 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation. 


189 


1. 

Digital  or  Key. 

20. 

2. 

Key  Frame. 

21. 

3. 

Key  Leads. 

22. 

4. 

Front  Rail  Pin  and  Punch- 

ing. 

23. 

5. 

Balance     Rail     Pin     and 

24. 

Punching. 

25. 

6. 

Back  Rail  Cloth  or  Felt. 

26, 

7. 

Capstan  Screw. 

27. 

8. 

Knuckle  of  Wippen. 

28. 

9. 

Bottom  Rail  of  Action. 

29. 

10. 

Supporting  Flange  of  Wip- 

pen. 

30. 

11. 

Wippen. 

31, 

12. 

Knuckle  of  Jack  or  Fly. 

32, 

13. 

Jack  or  Fly. 

33, 

14. 

Regulating-Screw  Rail. 

34, 

f  Jack-regulating     Button 

35 

15.^ 

and   Screw    #1   regulat- 
t      ing  escapement. 

36. 

( Jack-regulating    Button 

37. 

16.- 

1      and  Screw   #2,  regulat- 

38. 

(      ing  oscillation  of  Jack. 

39, 

17. 

Spoon   (Jack  Stop). 

40, 

18. 

Repetition  Lever  Support. 

41 

19. 

Repetition  Lever. 

Repetition  Lever  Spring, 
Spring  for  Jack  or  Fly. 
Repetition  Lever  Regulat- 
ing Button. 
Repetition  Lever  Stop. 
Hammer  Cushion. 
Top  Action   Rail. 
Hammer  Flange. 
Hammer-Shank  or   Stem. 
Knuckle  of  Hammer. 

{Repetition  Lever 
Regulating  Screw. 
Hammer-head  molding. 
Under-felt  of  Hammer. 
Top- Felt  of  Hammer. 
Back  check  wire. 
Back  check  head. 
Damper  Lever. 

{Damper  Lever  Flange  and 
Spring. 
Damper  Lever   Leads. 
Damper  Block. 
Damper  Wire. 
Damper  Head. 
Damper  Felt. 


190  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

top  of  13  works  in  a  groove  in  19.  Moreover,  tlie 
upper  surface  of  19  bears  against  the  hammer 
knuckle  (28)  the  weight  of  which  and  of  the  ham- 
mer, depresses  19  until  13  also  is  in  contact  with 
28.  When,  however,  the  key  is  depressed  it  will 
be  noted  that  the  lifting  is  first  done  by  19  and 
that  13  comes  in  to  play  only  after  19  has  begun  to 
lift  the  haimner.  As  the  key  is  further  depressed 
13  lifts  on  the  hammer  and  pushes  it  up  to  the 
string  until  tripped  by  its  knuckle  (12)  coming 
in  contact  with  the  regulating  button  (15).  The 
momentum  of  the  hammer  carries  it  up  the  rest  of 
the  way  to  the  string,  whence  it  immediately  re- 
bounds and  is  caught  by  the  back  check  (33  and  34) 
which  holds  it  until  the  key  is  released,  when  the 
hammer  is  again  supported  by  19,  which  holds  the 
hammer  up  while  13  slips  back  under  28.  The 
function  of  19  then  is  seen  to  be  that  of  assisting 
repetition,  for  by  using  it,  the  hammer  may  be 
again  and  again  operated  through  the  jack  (13) 
without  the  finger  entirely  quitting  the  key.  As 
may  be  seen  by  practical  test  on  the  action,  so 
long  as  19  holds  up  the  hammer  by  means  of  the 
expansive  strength  of  20,  just  enough  to  enable 
13  to  slip  back  into  place  (which  last  operation  is 
performed  very  quickly  through  the  agency  of  21), 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.  191 

the  stroke  may  be  repeated;  and  therefore  it  is 
plain  that  the  key  need  only  be  lifted  enough  to 
afford  the  finger  a  secure  stroke.  Eeally,  then, 
19  is  the  repetition  lever  in  fact  as  well  as  in 
name  and  through  its  agency  the  escapement 
which  otherwise  would  have  to  be  affected  by 
quitting  the  key  and  giving  it  time  to  rise  entirely, 
is  effectually  performed. 

Comparison  ivith  Square  Action.  The  old 
square  piano,  still  to  be  found  once  in  awhile,  pre- 
sents in  its  action  an  interesting  comparison  with 
the  above.  Here  will  be  seen  the  difference  be- 
tween single  and  double  repetition.  In  the  square 
action,  the  repetition  lever  is  omitted  and  the  jack 
can  only  find  its  way  under  the  hammer  butt 
safely,  when  the  key  is  allowed  to  rise  almost  to  its 
full  height  in  front.  Thus  the  finger  action  must 
be  higher  and  the  execution  of  rapid  passages  be- 
comes difficult  if  not  impossible. 

The  Back  Check.  There  is,  however,  one  other 
extremely  important  element  which  so  far  has  only 
incidentally  been  mentioned.  This  element  is  com- 
mon to  all  types  of  piano  action,  grand,  square  and 
upright  alike,  and  is  found  in  even  the  earliest 
successful  pianos.  I  refer  to  the  back  check  (33 
and  34).     The  object  of  this  is  to  catch  and  hold 


192  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

the  hammer  firmly  on  its  rebound,  thus  assisting 
the  recovery  of  19  and  13.  Even  in  pianos  like 
the  square,  or  older  makes  of  grand,  one  always 
finds  the  back-check,  whether  the  double-repetition 
device  be  present  or  not.  Indeed,  the  inventor  of 
the  pianoforte  action,  Cristofori,  to  whom  belongs 
premier  honors  as  father  of  piano  making,  cer- 
tainly mastered  the  necessity  for  the  back-check  in 
the  course  of  his  experiments,  for  he  devised  them, 
in  almost  modern  shape,  and  built  them  into  his 
last  pianos.  This  may  be  seen  by  examining  the 
Cristofori  piano  now  standing  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art,  New  York,  the  date  of  which  is 
1720.  The  back-check,  then,  is  as  old  as  the  piano. 
This  fact  alone  shows  its  essential  value,  for  not 
otherwise  would  the  necessity  for  something  like  it 
have  been  so  quickly  discerned.  Cristofori,  of 
course,  was  an  uncommon  genius,  for  in  his  last 
actions  (1726  and  later)  he  had  also  an  under- 
lever,  not  unlike  the  repetition-lever  of  the  modern 
grand  piano,  and  very  much  like  the  under-lever  of 
the  '*01d  English  Square  Action"  so-called;  the 
object  whereof  is  to  steady  the  hammer  and  impart 
elasticity  to  the  blow. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  back-check  comes 
into  action  when  the  hammer,  rebounding  from  the 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.  193 

strings,  is  descending  towards  a  position  of  rest. 
The  spring  of  the  repetition  lever  would  naturally 
throw  the  hammer  back  towards  the  strings  again, 
and  thus  keep  it  dancing  up  and  down  instead  of 
bringing  it  sharply  to  rest.  Of  course,  the  back 
check  is  to  be  carefully  adjusted  so  as  to  catch  the 
hammer  at  just  the  right  point  in  its  arc  of 
travel.  Thus  the  back  check  performs  two  func- 
tions, (1)  it  catches  and  holds  the  hammer  on  its 
rebound,  where  the  repetition  lever  alone  could 
not  hold  it  and  (2)  it  allows  the  repetition  lever  to 
lift  the  hammer  again  the  moment  the  key  is  re- 
leased. In  other  words,  since  the  back  check 
works  from  the  key  direct,  it  follows  that  the 
least  raising  of  the  back  end  of  the  key  releases 
the  check  from  the  hammer,  whereupon  the  repeti- 
tion lever  does  the  rest,  as  described  above ;  but  the 
check  is  necessary  to  prepare  the  hammer  for  the 
action  of  the  lever.  The  operating  or  sound 
producing  part  of  the  grand  piano  action  may  be 
described  by  saying  that  the  key  moves  the  repeti- 
tion lever,  the  lever  moves  the  hammer  and  then 
lets  the  jack  move  it  further,  the  jack  moves  the 
hammer  to  the  string  and  then  trips  it,  the  check 
catches  the  hammer  on  rebound,  and  the  lever  lifts 
it  the  moment  the  key  is  released;  whereupon  the 


194  Modern  Piano  Tuning, 

cycle  of  motions  may  once  more  be  set  in  mo- 
tion, to  be  repeated  as  often  as  the  key  rises  at 
the  back  enough  to  ease  the  back  check  from  the 
hammer  head. 

Turning  Points.  Thus  the  grand  action  ap- 
pears, in  its  sound  producing  parts,  as  comprising 
six  centers  and  six  radii,  describing  six  arcs  of 
turning.  All  piano  actions  may  be  similarly  con- 
sidered. 

The  Damper  Action.  The  function  of  the 
damper  (40)  is  to  rest  on  the  strings  when  the  key 
is  not  in  use  and  so  prevent  any  vibration  of  the 
string,  especially  to  prevent  any  sympathetic  vi- 
bration which  might  be  produced  by  the  vibration 
of  another  string  having  partials  in  common.  As 
will  at  once  be  observed,  however,  the  damper  is 
so  positioned  that  when  the  key  is  in  motion,  and 
has  descended  about  one-third  of  its  total  dip,  the 
damper  lever  (35)  begins  to  lift  and  with  it  also 
the  damper  head,  so  that  by  the  time  the  hammer 
is  about  to  make  its  stroke,  the  damper  is  well 
clear  of  the  string.  Upon  the  return  of  the  key  to 
its  position  of  rest,  the  damper  is  allowed  to  fall 
back  on  the  string,  being  pressed  down  thereupon 
by  means  of  the  spring  in  the  damper  lever. 

Some  European  actions  are  to  be  found  with 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.         195 

dampers  which  normally  press  up  against  the  un- 
der side  of  the  strings  by  means  of  springs  and  are 
drawn  down  when  the  key  is  pressed.  Such  are 
the  Erard,  which  retains  the  original  action  in- 
vented by  Sebastian  Erard  in  1821,  and  the  Broad- 
wood  of  London,  the  latter  being  the  oldest  of 
existing  makes. 

Damper  pedal.  The  damper  action  can  be  en- 
tirely raised  from  the  strings,  independent  of  the 
operation  of  the  piano  action,  by  means  of  the 
damper  rod  (not  shown  in  illustration),  which  runs 
underneath  the  line  of  damper  levers  and  is  con- 
trolled by  the  right  hand  pedal  of  the  piano 
through  suitable  trapwork  usually  placed  under 
the  key-bed. 

General  Construction  Practice.  The  piano  ac- 
tion in  all  forms  is  a  wooden  machine.  Numer- 
ous attempts  to  devise  a  satisfactory  action  of 
metal  have  so  far  been  uniformly  failures,  largely 
because  the  peculiar  requirements  of  lightness, 
independence  of  lubricants  and  low  frictional  re- 
sistance seem  to  present  insuperable  difficulties. 
Although,  therefore,  the  stickiness,  dampness  and 
liability  to  warping  which  naturally  characterise 
wooden  machinery  of  any  sort  render  the  piano 
action  somewhat  unreliable  and  distinctly  trouble- 


196  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

some  at  times,  it  is  not  likely  tliat  much  change  will 
be  made  in  the  future,  unless  indeed  some  entirely 
new  principle  is  discovered.  On  the  whole,  how- 
ever, the  wooden  piano  action,  especially  in  its 
grand  piano  form,  is  a  wonderfully  efficient  piece 
of  machinery. 

Being  in  effect  a  series  of  centers,  with  radii 
therefrom  moving  through  arcs  of  circles,  the 
piano  action  requires  numerous  pivotal  points. 
These  are  now  universally  provided  by  means  of 
flanges  carrying  brass  center-pins,  working  in 
bushed  holes,  on  which  the  levers  turn.  These 
flanges  have  been  always  of  wood  hitherto  but 
for  the  last  fifteen  years  there  has  been  a  con- 
stant and  steady  drift  towards  brass  or  other 
metal  forms ;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  piano 
of  the  future  will  use  such  centers  altogether; 
if  only  because  they  are  more  rigid,  less  likely 
to  loosen  at  the  bushings  and  more  easily  ad- 
justed. 

The  woods  used  in  the  piano  action  have  been 
briefly  mentioned  already  ^  and  here  it  may  prin- 
cipally be  said  that  the  practice  of  the  best  makers 
has  not  noticeably  varied  in  a  good  many  years. 
Hard  woods  such  as  maple,  beech,  and  sometimes 

iCf.  Chapter  VT. 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.  197 

oak,  are  used  where  strength  and  rigidity  are  the 
requirements,  as  for  instance  in  hammer  butts, 
hammer  shanks  and  supporting  rails.  Key 
frames  are  usually  white  pine  and  keys  them- 
selves the  same  wood,  particularly  chosen  for 
straight  grain. 

The  key  frame  and  keyboard  are  to-day  as  they 
were  a  century  and  more  ago,  at  least  as  to  essen- 
tials. No  particular  progress  has  been  made,  ex- 
cept that  we  have  better  felt,  larger  pins  for  front 
and  balance  rails  and  accurately  machined  mor- 
tises and  holes.  But  otherwise  there  is  nothing  of 
importance  to  record. 

The  felts  used  in  piano  actions  are  especially 
manufactured  for  the  purpose,  the  principal  varie- 
ties being  the  very  fine  close-textured  red-cloth 
used  for  bushing  and  the  spongy  green  and  white 
material  used  for  punchings.  Card-board  and 
paper  punchings  are  also  used,  for  fine  work  under 
the  keys,  as  described  later. 

The  brass  center-pin  is  universal  and  attempts 
to  substitute  other  material  for  it  have  not  suc- 
ceeded, although  recent  experiments  throw  much 
doubt  upon  the  question  of  comparative  durabil- 
ity as  between  brass  and  steel  wire.  What  is 
true  of  pins  in  this  respect  is  even  more  true  of 


198  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

the  springs,  which  are  always  made  of  brass,  but 
which,  in  grand  pianos  especially,  seem  to  collapse 
and  lose  their  ''life"  very  soon  under  modern 
conditions.  It  would  probably  be  a  good  thing  if 
experiments  looking  to  the  substitution  of  steel 
springs  were  made ;  but  the  trade  is  conservative 
here,  as  everywhere.  Capstan  screws  are  also 
of  brass  always,  but  the  remaining  hardware  is 
either  cast-iron  (action  frames,  screws,  etc.),  or 
steel  (damper  rods,  etc.). 

Detail  Variations.  Older  grand  pianos  are  of- 
ten found  (if  made  prior  to  about  1890)  to  have 
wooden  rockers  with  short  extension  rods  of  wood, 
in  place  of  the  capstan  screw.  The  method  is  not 
admirable,  mainly  because  it  renders  the  action 
less  accessible. 

Wooden  action  frames  were  also  common  in  the 
old  days,  and  wooden  action  rails  are  still  almost 
universally  used,  although  modern  makers  are 
beginning  to  see  the  advantage  of  at  least  support- 
ing these  rails  by  metal  bars. 

The  construction  of  the  repetition  lever  and  of 
the  wippen  in  general  is  subject  to  considerable 
variation  of  practice.  Some  makers  (Steinway, 
Schwander)  use  a  single  spring,  with  double  or 
single  bearing.     Sometimes  the  travel  of  the  jack 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.         199 

is  limited  by  a  metal  spoon  as  shown  in  Figure  19 
(Wessell,  Nickel  &  Gross),  and  sometimes  by  a 
wooden  post  (Schwander),  whilst  in  some  actions 
(Steinway),  no  adjustable  means  are  considered 
necessary.  The  greater  number  of  modern  grand 
piano  actions  are  provided  with  tensioning  screws 
whereby  the  strength  of  the  wippen  springs  may 
be  adjusted  more  surely  than  would  be  possible  by 
any  method  of  bending.  But  older  actions  are 
usually  without  this  adjustment. 

Steinway  grand  pianos  are  distinguished  by  the 
use  of  an  octagon  head  screw  in  place  of  a  capstan 
screw,  which  necessitates  the  use  of  a  special 
wrench  for  turning  them.  The  same  makers  use 
metal  sheathing  for  their  action  rails,  which  are  of 
special  design. 

The  cushion  on  the  wippen,  above  which  the 
hammer  is  normally  held,  has  given  way  in  some 
grand  actions  to  a  fixed,  independently  supported 
hammer-rail  on  which  the  shanks  rest  as  they  do 
in  an  upright.  Some  of  the  Schwander  actions  are 
of  this  type.  Strauch  Brothers,  also,  have  made 
some  grand  actions  like  this. 

Soft  Pedal.  These  last,  however,  are  made  spe- 
cially for  the  purpose  of  substituting  a  lift  of  the 
hammer-line  by  the  soft  pedal  for  the  usual  shift 


200  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

of  the  key-board.  The  Isotonic  soft  pedal  action 
by  Kranich  &  Bach  is  of  similar  type. 

Sostenuto  Pedal,  On  most  modem  grand 
pianos,  each  damper-lever  is  provided  with  a 
tongue  of  felt  projecting  from  it.  In  front  of  the 
line  of  tongues  is  a  brass  flanged  rail  which  can 
be  rotated  by  depressing  the  middle  pedal  (pro- 
vided for  that  purpose).  After  a  key  or  keys 
have  been  struck  and  their  dampers  raised,  the 
pedal  may  be  depressed  before  releasing  the  keys, 
and  the  flanged  rail  thus  turns,  catching  the  felt 
tongues  and  holding  up  the  dampers.  The  keys 
may  then  be  quitted.  This  device  is  useful  in  get- 
ting tone-color  and  adds  to  the  tonal  resources  of 
the  piano  most  markedly.* 

Regulation  of  the  Grand  Action.  The  processes 
which  together  constitute  the  adjustment  or  ' '  reg- 
ulation" of  the  grand  piano  action  are  not  com- 
plicated when  studied  systematically  and  in  order. 
To  describe  them  is  by  no  means  difficult ;  and  in- 
deed the  only  difficulty  is  to  get  enough  prac- 
tice to  be  able  readily  and  rapidly  to  perform  the 
various  processes.     In  order  to  simplify  as  much 

1  Many  other  small  detail  variations  may  be  found  amongst 
the  work  of  individual  makers,  but  for  general  remarks  along 
these  lines  see  Chapter  X. 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.         201 

as  possible  what  follows,  I  shall  simply  detail  in 
order  the  various  steps  taken  in  regulating  the 
action  of  the  grand  piano,  so  that  the  reader  may 
be  able  to  see  what  is  done  and  why.  A  first 
necessity,  however,  is  some  consideration  of  the 
question  of  action  ** touch"  considered  from  the 
viewpoint  of  the  pianist. 

"Touch."  It  is  important  that  the  pianist 
should  have  a  piano  with  an  even  feel  to  the  keys, 
uniform  depth  of  touch  and  uniform  resistance  so 
far  as  is  possible.  The  practice  of  makers  in  this 
respect  has  greatly  varied  since  the  birth  of  the 
piano,  but  curiously  enough  the  most  modem  ideas 
in  regard  to  depth  and  resistance  are  again  vir- 
tually the  same  as  those  of  one  hundred  years  ago, 
having  descended  from  the  excessive  heights  at- 
tained in  the  middle  nineteenth  century,  when 
piano  makers  vainly  attempted  to  make  pianos 
large,  heavy  and  loud  enough  to  suit  the  piano- 
thumping  school  of  musicians,  now  happily  out  of 
fashion. 

Depth  of  Touch.  The  pianist  considers  depth 
of  touch  from  the  standpoint  of  convenience.  He 
wants  the  touch  to  be  deep  enough  to  give  him  a 
good  **feel,"  and  shallow  enough  to  permit  of 
rapid  passage-work.    General  practice  now  ac- 


202  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

cords  the  key  a  touch-depth  (dip  of  the  front  end) 
of  %  inch.  The  bass  end  may  be  a  little  deeper, 
but  on  the  whole  this  is  not  essential. 

Touch-depth,  however,  the  piano  maker  must 
consider  in  connection  with  rise  of  the  rear  lever 
of  the  key.  Moreover,  it  naturally  follows  that  as 
the  front  dip  is  to  the  rear  rise,  so  is  the  length  of 
the  front  lever  (front-rail  pin  to  balance-pin)  to 
the  length  of  the  rear  lever  (balance-pin  to  cap- 
stan). If  therefore  the  requirements  of  any  ac- 
tion are  such  that  special  height  of  rise  is  re- 
quired, the  position  of  the  balance-pin  must  be 
shifted  accordingly.  Usually,  however,  a  rise  of 
Yi  inch  for  the  back  is  found  sufficient.  Taking 
this  as  a  basis,  the  following  simple  calculation 
gives  the  other  proportion : 

Depth  of  front  dip  %'\ 

Height  of  back  rise  14". 

Front  Lever  :  Back  Lever  :  :  Front  dip  : 
Back  Else. 

But,  %   :  1/4    :   :  3:   :  2. 

.'.Front  Lever  :  Back  Lever  :  :  3  :  2. 

If,  however,  the  proportions  between  dip  and 
rise  are  altered,  so  also  the  length  proportions  be- 
tween front  and  back  lever  are  affected. 

Length  of  Keys.    In  grand  pianos  of  normal 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.         203 

size  the  key  lengths  have  finally  been  settled  at 
about  15%  inches  from  front  rail  pin  to  capstan. 
Short  grands  sometimes  have  to  carry  a  smaller 
key,  and  in  this  case,  to  preserve  the  true  front 
dip  the  proportionate  lengths  must  still  be  as 
above,  for  if  any  change  is  made  on  the  mistaken 
idea  that  some  fixed  length  instead  of  a  fixed  pro- 
portion is  to  be  followed,  the  entire  key  propor- 
tions will  fall  to  the  ground  and  the  touch  will  un- 
doubtedly be  bad.  By  retaining  the  proper  pro- 
portions as  indicated  above  the  short  key  will  be 
effectual  enough,  although  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  shorter  the  key  the  less  the  leverage  for 
an  equal  touch  depth. 

Resistance.  The  practice  of  the  best  makers  has 
finally  settled  the  resistance  or  touch-weight  at  2^ 
ounces  approximately.  Some  variation  between 
the  extreme  bass  and  treble  ends  is  permissible 
and  desirable.  In  fact  it  would  be  well  to  consider 
a  resistance  in  the  extreme  bass  of  2%  ounces, 
graduated  to  2%  ounces  in  the  middle  and  to  2^ 
ounces  in  the  extreme  treble.  Changes  in  resist- 
ance may  be  made  by  drilling  the  body-wood  of 
the  keys  and  putting  in  small  round  pieces  of  lead 
where  required.  The  piano  maker  should  always 
carefully  ascertain  the  weight  required  to  depress 


204  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

each  key  when  the  action  is  in  contact  with  it  and 
having  done  this  adjust  accordingly  by  putting 
lead  in  the  back  of  the  keys  to  increase  the  resist- 
ance, or  in  front  to  lessen  it. 

Order  of  Regulating.  Following  the  general 
factory  practice  we  may  consider  the  regulation 
of  the  grand  piano  action  in  the  following  order  -} 

1.  Key  frame,  and  keys.  Key-shift  and  soft 
pedal. 

2.  Action. 

3.  Dampers,  damper  pedal  and  sostenuto  pedal. 
Keys  and  Key  Frame.     1.  Keys  are  removed 

from  frame,  which  then  is  fitted  with  felt  punch- 
ings  for  front  and  balance  rails  and  strip  of  cloth 
for  back-rail. 

2.  Keys  are  replaced  and  eased  off,  by  being 
tested  for  clearance  on  front  and  balance  rails. 
Each  key  should  fall  back  when  lifted,  naturally 
and  readily,  but  not  loosely.  Key-pliers  are  used 
for  squeezing  the  bushings  wider  when  needed. 
If  keys  are  too  loose,  bushings  may  be  squeezed  to- 
gether by  punching  with  a  wooden  punch. 

3.  Key-frame  is  then  placed  under  action  {same 

1  For  the  sake  of  clearness,  it  will  be  necessary  to  include 
certain  processes  actually  classified  as  part  of  the  preliminary 
Action-finishing. 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.         205 

having  been  previously  adjusted  in  finishing  room 
when  capstans  were  placed  in  each  key)  and  gen- 
eral level  of  key-frame  in  relation  to  action  is 
noted. 

4.  Action  being  removed  again,  a  piece  of  lead 
is  placed  at  rear  of  each  key,  having  same  weight 
as  resistance  of  action.  This  holds  keys  up  in 
front  and  down  in  rear.  Keys  are  then  carefully 
straightened  by  knocking  over  balance-rail  pins 
slightly  when  needed,  then  spaced  by  bending  front 
rail  pin  where  needed,  and  lastly  leveled.  This 
latter  operation  is  performed  by  putting  under 
extreme  treble  and  bass  keys,  over  front-rail  pin, 
wooden  block  measured  exactly  equal  to  calculated 
depth  of  dip.  Straight  edge  is  then  put  over  keys 
on  line  immediately  above  blocks  and  general  level 
of  keys  adjusted  up  to  the  extremes.  If  too  high, 
key  frame  may  be  planed  off  where  balance  rail 
is  screwed  in,  or  if  too  low,  balance  rail  may  be 
''built  up"  by  putting  strips  of  cardboard  be- 
tween balance  rail  and  bottom  of  key-frame  in 
same  places. 

4.  Key  frame  is  then  replaced  in  piano  with 
keys  taken  out  where  soft-pedal  shifting  lever 
touches  frame.  This  lever  is  closely  adjusted  so 
that  the  key  frame  moves  as  soon  as  pressure  is 


206  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

put  on  pedal.  Points  of  contact  are  black-leaded 
with  powdered  black-lead  and  burnished  with 
heated  steel  bar.  Spring  which  retracts  key  frame 
is  also  tested  and  adjusted  if  necessary. 

Action.  5.  Action  being  replaced  on  keys,  ham- 
mers are  adjusted  so  that  length  of  stroke  is  not 
more  than  2  inches  from  end  to  end.  (This  is  the 
action-finisher's  work  originally  and  regulator 
merely  looks  it  over).  Each  hammer  must  then 
be  adjusted  to  rest  over  its  cushion  about  %2  inch. 
Capstans  are  adjusted  accordingly  and  care  taken 
to  see  that  the  hammers  are  level. 

6.  Jacks  are  then  adjusted  so  that  hammer  trips 
up  at  about  %2  inch  from  the  string  {here  prac- 
tice varies  but  close  regulation  is  desirable).  This 
is  done  by  turning  regulating  button  of  jack. 

7.  Jack  is  regulated  by  turning  button  and 
screw  on  repetition  lever  so  that  jack  normally 
rests  in  middle  of  groove  in  repetition  lever. 
Usually  a  line  on  groove  is  marked  to  show  right 
place. 

8.  Back-checks  are  regulated  so  that  (1)  they 
stand  even  and  straight  in  line,  (2)  catch  the  ham- 
mers firmly  without  any  slippage  even  on  hard 
blows  and  (3)  catch  hammers  when  same  have 
descended  on  rebound  about  Ys  inch  from  the 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.         207 

strings.  Use  only  proper  bending  iron  or  bend- 
ing pliers  for  this  work. 

9.  Eepetition  Lever  is  regulated;  (1)  spring  is 
made  strong  enough  to  cause  the  hammer  to  dance 
a  little  and  lift  slightly  when  back-check  is  re- 
leased. Most  modern  actions  have  screw  tension 
adjustment,  but  otherwise  tension  may  be  changed 
by  bending  wires  with  hook;  (2)  rear  of  lever  is 
set  low  enough  to  permit  plenty  of  space  between 
it  and  its  travel-limiting  hook,  so  that  the  jack 
may  rest  about  Vm"  below  the  level  of  the  grooved 
end.  This  is  usually  done  by  means  of  regu- 
lating button  (Figure  19) ;  (3)  height  of  rise  of 
repetition  lever  under  hammer-knuckle  is  regu- 
lated by  Repetition  Lever  Regulating  Screw 
(No.  29  same  illustration),  so  that  rise  of  Lever 
is  stopped  when  hammer  is  still  about  %2  inch 
from  the  string,  or  (which  is  nearly  the  same  in 
practice),  a  little  before  the  jacks  trip  off;  just 
enough  before  to  give  the  jacks  about  Vs  inch  lift 
by  themselves  before  tripping. 

After-Touch.  10.  Action  and  keys  being  in 
piano,  keys  are  tested  for  evenness  of  dip.  This 
is  best  done  by  means  of  wooden  block  of  proper 
depth  whereby  each  key  may  be  tested  from  ex- 
treme bass  up,  by  placing  block  on  top  of  key  and 


208  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

then  depressing.  If  block  sticks  up  too  high  take 
out  punchings  underneath  front ;  if  block  sinks  be- 
low level  of  key-top  put  more  punchings  under- 
neath. Paper  punchings  are  used  for  this 
work. 

11.  Testing  for  after-touch  is  then  done.  After- 
touch  is  the  slight  lifting  of  hammers  which  should 
take  place  when  keys  are  gently  released.  If 
properly  regulated,  the  release  of  the  key  imme- 
diately releases  back-check  and  repetition  lever 
lifts  hammer  slightly.  To  make  after-touch  right, 
put  enough  punchings  under  each  key  to  make 
sure  that  hammers  will  not  release  from  back 
checks  except  under  very  hard  stroke;  and  then 
take  out  from  this  about  3^2  inch  punching  depth. 
This  will  leave  the  necessary  after-touch.^ 

Dampers  and  pedal  work.  12.  Dampers  must 
lie  square  on  strings  and  their  wires  work  freely 
in  bushings. 

13.  Each  damper  lever  must  be  regulated  so  that 
the  line  of  dampers,  when  lifted  by  the  sustaining 
pedal,  lifts  all  together  evenly  and  looking  like 
one  piece. 

14.  Damper  wires  must  be  regulated  so  that  lift 

1  It  is  often  necessary  and  always  better,  to  regulate  the  black 
keys  separately  and  with  the  white  keys  removed. 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.         209 

of  dampers  does  not  exceed  /4  inch  in  bass  and  a 
little  less  in  treble. 

15.  Damper  lever  line  is  to  rest  above  rear  of 
keys  at  such  a  distance  that  key  has  performed 
about  Vs  of  its  dip  before  dampers  lift. 

16.  Damper  lift  rail  or  rod  operated  by  sustain- 
ing pedal  is  to  rest  closely  in  contact  with  damper 
levers. 

17.  Sustaining  pedal  trap-work  is  to  be  regu- 
lated to  eliminate  nearly  all  lost  motion,  leaving 
just  a  suspicion  for  the  greater  ease  of  the  foot 
work. 

18.  Sostenuto  pedal-work  is  to  be  regulated  so 
that  felt  tongues  on  damper-levers  are  level  and 
are  free  of  flanged  rail  until  same  is  turned,  when 
they  are  caught  by  same  if  keys  belonging  to  them 
have  been  depressed  and  held  down. 

This  is  an  outline — not  entirely  perfect,  for  this 
would  not  be  possible  in  a  book — of  the  process  of 
regulating  grand  actions.  I  now  pass  to  consid- 
eration of  the  action  of  the  upright  piano. 

The  Upright  Action.  Familiar  to  most  of  us 
as  the  upright  piano  undoubtedly  is,  one  can  only 
wonder  that  the  stock  of  public  information  about 
its  action  is  so  generally  inadequate.  It  has  been 
my  experience  to  find  that  even  tuners  are  by  no 


210  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

means  guiltless  of  ignorance  in  this  respect,  and 
that  the  real  meaning  and  inner  refinement  of  the 
upright  action  are  almost  as  much  a  closed  book 
to  many  of  them  as  anything  else  one  could  men- 
tion. Crude  and  rule-of -thumb  methods  of  regu- 
lating and  repairing,  handed  down  by  tradition 
and  practiced  by  men  themselves  unable  to  ap- 
preciate the  piano  from  the  performer's  stand- 
point, are  not  calculated  to  improve  either  the 
durability  of  the  piano  or  the  reputation  of  the 
tuning  profession.  It  is  therefore  without  any 
further  apology  that  I  devote  space  to  an  analysis 
of  the  upright  movement  as  painstaking  as  that 
which  we  have  just  finished. 

Figure  20  shows  the  modern  upright  action,  to 
which  is  appended  a  complete  terminology  as  fol- 
lows. 

The  illustration  is  of  an  action  by  Wessell, 
Nickel  &  Gross  of  New  York. 

Distinctive  Features  of  Upright  Action.  The 
upright  piano  action  is  in  two  parts,  separated 
from  each  other  and  only  in  mechanical  contact; 
namely  the  keyboard  and  the  action  proper. 
These  two  can  therefore  be  handled  separately  in 
a  convenient  manner. 

The  hammer  does  not  fall  back  by  gravity,  and 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.  211 

so  must  be  assisted  by  the  provision  of  an  en- 
tirely new  element,  the  bridal-tape  (No.  20),  as 
well  as  by  the  hammer  spring  (No.  36). 

The  hammer-line  rests  against  a  hammer-rail 
and  the  soft-pedal  operates  by  swinging  this  rail 
to  bring  the  hammers  nearer  to  the  strings.  This 
creates  lost  motion  between  capstan  and  abstract, 
which  in  some  actions  is  taken  up  by  special 
devices. 

There  is  no  special  repetition  lever. 

Operation  of  Upright  Action.  The  key  being 
depressed  at  its  front  end,  the  rear  end  rises,  lift- 
ing the  abstract  (8)  and  the  wippen  (13).  The 
rise  of  the  wippen  lifts  the  jack  (17)  which  swings 
the  hammer  butt  (25)  carrying  the  hammer,  until 
tripped  at  its  knuckle  by  the  button  (22).  Trip- 
ping of  the  jack  throws  it  out  of  contact  with  the 
hammer,  which  moves  forward  to  the  string  by  its 
own  momentum,  and  rebounds,  assisted  by  the 
spring,  till  it  is  caught  and  held  by  the  back  check 
(19)  working  against  the  back-stop  (24).  When 
the  key  is  released,  the  hammer  is  pulled  back  by 
the  tape,  which  also  assists  in  the  retraction  of  the 
jack.  This  latter  important  part  of  the  process  is 
further  assisted  by  the  peculiar  shape  of  the 
leather-covered  hammer-knuckle  against  which  the 


Figure  20. 

212 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.         213 


1. 

Key. 

22. 

Regulating  button  and 

2. 

Key  frame. 

screw. 

3. 

Key   lead. 

23. 

Jack  stop  rail. 

4. 

Front  rail  pin  and  punch- 

24. 

Back  stop. 

ing. 

25. 

Hammer  butt. 

5. 

Balance  rail  pin  and 

26. 

Hammer  shank. 

punching. 

27. 

Hammer  molding. 

6. 

Back  rail  cloth. 

28. 

Hammer  top-felt. 

7. 

Capstan  screw. 

29. 

Hammer  under-felt. 

8. 

Abstract. 

30. 

Wippen  flange. 

9. 

Abstract  lever. 

31. 

Spoon. 

10. 

Abstract  lever  flange. 

32. 

Middle  action-rail. 

11. 

Lower  action  rail. 

33. 

Damper  lifting  rod. 

12. 

Action  bracket. 

34. 

Damper  lever. 

13. 

Wippen. 

35. 

Hammer     and     damper 

14. 

Jack  flange. 

flange. 

15. 

Jack  spring. 

36. 

Spring  rail  spring. 

16. 

Jack  loxuckle. 

37. 

Spring  rail. 

17. 

Jack. 

38. 

Damper  wire. 

18. 

Bridle  wire. 

39. 

Damper  block. 

19. 

Back   check. 

40. 

Damper  head. 

20. 

Bridle  tape. 

41. 

Damper  felt. 

21. 

Regulating  rail. 

42. 

Action  bolt. 

■     r^^ 

'» 

lc= ^1 

-        ^ 

„.| 

"""^ 

r  "   1 

J 

2 

214  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

jack  bears.  When  the  key  has  already  risen 
enough  to  bring  the  parts  here  described  into  play 
and  start  them  on  their  arcs  of  turning,  the  spoon 
(31)  presses  against  the  damper  lever  (34)  and 
the  damper  is  pushed  away  from  the  spring. 
When  the  key  is  released,  the  damper  is  retracted 
with  it  till  it  against  presses  against,  and  damps, 
the  string. 

The  action  of  the  upright  is  somewhat  simpler 
than  that  of  the  grand  and  the  absence  of  a 
repetition  lever  is  felt  in  the  higher  finger  ac- 
tion and  less  delicate  repetition.  Nevertheless, 
if  properly  regulated,  this  action  is  efficient  and 
rapid. 

Comparison  of  the  Upright  with  the  Grand  Ac- 
tion. The  characteristic  feature  of  the  upright 
action  is  the  bridle  tape.  The  value  of  this  tape 
lies  mainly  in  the  slight  extra  pull  it  manages  to 
impart  to  the  hampaer  butt  when  the  hammer  re- 
bounds from  the  string,  and  after  the  back  check 
has  caught  the  hammer  and  been  released  by  the 
release  of  the  key.  The  tape  would  not  have  any 
special  value  but  for  the  fact  that  the  hammer, 
having  been  caught  by  the  back  check,  naturally 
would  hang  a  little  on  the  release  thereof,  if  it  did 
not  receive  the  gentle  pull  caused  by  the  fall  of  the 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.         215 

wippen  with  which  the  bridle  tape  connects  it. 

The  tape  is,  in  fact,  to  the  upright  action  what 
the  repetition  lever  is  to  the  grand.  Until  these 
two  features  had  been  devised  and  applied  to  their 
corresponding  actions,  the  piano  was  an  extremely 
imperfect  instrument.  The  modern  upright  piano 
owes  its  present  touch  effect  to  the  tape  just  as 
the  touch  delicacy  of  the  grand  is  due  to  the  repeti- 
tion lever.  Of  course  the  grand  action  is  the  more 
delicate  and  responsive  of  the  two,  for  it  possesses 
the  double  repetition.  This  the  upright  cannot 
have,  not  to  mention  the  fact  that  the  fall  of  the 
hammer  through  gravity  is  of  course  far  more 
effective  than  its  retraction  by  springs.  The  up- 
right action  blocks  more  easily  than  does  the 
grand,  and  finger  movement  must  be  higher  to 
secure  repetition. 

Detail  Variations.  The  metal  flange  is  coming 
into  its  own  even  more  rapidly  on  the  upright  ac- 
tion than  on  the  grand.  The  first  step  in  this  di- 
rection was  taken  some  years  ago  when  Wessell, 
Nickel  &  Gross  brought  out  the  continuous  brass 
plate  with  flanges,  carrying  each  section  of  ham- 
mers on  one  plate.  This  did  not  prove  to  be  the 
required  solution,  but  the  individual  brass  flange 
has  since  come  forward  and  appears  to  be  per- 


216  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

fectly  satisfactory.  Certainly  it  does  make  the 
action  more  rigid  and  durable. 

Metal  rails  or  metal  reinforcements  to  wooden 
rails  are  also  coming  into  use  and  these  are  like- 
wise an  admirable  improvement. 

Some  actions  (Schwander)  are  provided  with  an 
extra  spring  in  the  jack,  called  a  repetition  spring. 
The  same  makers  have  eliminated  the  ordinary 
spring  rail  and  in  place  of  it  have  a  separate  sup- 
port for  each  spring  in  the  back  of  the  hammer 
butt,  fastened  to  a  loop  cord  secured  in  the  flange. 

Lost  motion  attachments  are  common.  These 
consist  of  a  mechanical  movement  whereby  the 
rise  of  the  hammer-rail,  on  the  depression  of  the 
soft  pedal,  causes  a  proportionate  lengthening  of 
the  abstract,  to  fill  up  the  gap  which  would  other- 
wise be  left  between  capstan  and  abstract. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  at  various  times 
to  eliminate  the  tape  and  provide  for  reliable 
repetition  by  other  methods.  The  ideas  of  Con- 
over  Brothers,  of  Luigi  Battallia  and  of  many 
others  might  be  mentioned,  but  modern  practice 
in  this  respect  chiefly  centers  about  the  ''Master- 
touch"  action  of  Staib-Abendschein  and  the  Am- 
mon  *'non-blockable"  action  of  Christman.  One 
principal  objection  to  the  tape  is  its  liability  to 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.         217 

destruction  by  mice  or  other  domestic  pests. 
Other  upright  actions  often  have  props  fixed  in 
the  keys  instead  of  the  more  modern  abstract. 
These  are  adjusted  by  turning  the  wooden  button 
up  or  down  on  its  wire. 

Pedal  Actions.  The  soft  pedal  of  the  upright 
piano  merely  swings  the  hammer  rail  in  an  arc 
so  as  to  bring  the  hammers  nearer  the  strings. 

The  damper  pedal  operates  through  a  damper- 
lifting  rod  (33)  whereby  the  bottoms  of  the  damper 
levers  are  thrown  forward,  tilting  back  the 
dampers  from  the  strings. 

A  third  pedal  is  usually  found.  Sometimes  this 
operates  to  draw  down  a  rail  from  which  depends 
a  strip  of  thick  felt,  so  as  to  interpose  the  felt 
between  hammers  and  strings  and  muffle  the  tone. 
This  is  called  a  ''muffler"  pedal.  Another  form 
is  an  auxiliary  damper  action  operating  on  the 
bass  dampers  only,  while  another  kind  still  is  an 
adaptation  to  the  upright  of  the  grand  sostenuto 
pedal.  A  fourth  and  last  is  a  mere  duplicate  of 
the  soft  pedal.  Unhappily  the  majority  of  com- 
mercial upright  pianos  have  no  more  to  show  for 
their  middle  pedal  than  this  blank. 

Materials.  All  that  has  been  said  on  this  sub- 
ject in  the  sections  relating  to  grand  actions  is  ap- 


218  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

plicable  to  the  upright,  and  I  shall  therefore  con- 
tent myself  with  referring  the  reader  to  them, 
suggesting  also  that  he  study  the  various  repre- 
sentative actions  he  meets  with,  for  the  purpose  of 
discovering  at  first  hand  the  practical  facts  of  ma- 
te-rial and  constructional  usage  as  displayed  by 
manufacturers.  In  this  case,  as  in  all  others,  prac- 
tical first  hand  knowledge  is  priceless. 

Regulation  of  Upright  Action.  Certain  parts 
of  the  work  of  regulation  are  identical  in  method 
with  what  we  have  already  learned  concerning  the 
similar  processes  in  the  grand  action,  but  the  dif- 
ferences in  design  between  the  two  bring  about 
such  differences  in  parts  and  functions  of  parts 
that  a  separate  description  is  necessary  every- 
where save  in  one  or  two  instances ;  as  will  now  be 
seen. 

1.  Keys.  The  preliminary  work  of  felting,  eas- 
ing, leveling  and  spacing  keys  is  done  just  as  be- 
fore described  in  the  sections  on  the  grand  action. 
This  work,  in  the  present  case,  may  be  done  with- 
out removing  the  action  from  the  keys,  so  that  it 
is  unnecessary  to  put  lead  pieces  at  the  backs  of 
the  keys  to  hold  them  up. 

2.  Hammer-hlow.  This  is  regulated  to  be  about 
l%o  inches.     Regulation  is  made  by  putting  felt 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.  219 

cushion  between  hammer-rail  and  action  brackets. 

3.  Lost  Motion.  Lost  motion  between  capstans 
and  abstracts  is  taken  up.  Correct  adjustment  is 
indicated  when  the  hammers  lie  freely  on  the  ham- 
mer rail,  neither  forced  above  it  nor  with  a  gap  in 
the  action  below  them.  As  long  as  the  back-checks 
move  without  moving  hammers,  there  is  lost  mo- 
tion; but  it  is  advisable  to  leave  a  little,  a  very 
little,  play,  so  that  the  jack  is  not  hard  up  against 
the  hammer  knuckle. 

4.  Back-checks.  Back-checks  are  straightened 
by  means  of  the  back-check  bender  or  a  pair  of 
bending  pliers,  so  that  each  check  lies  squarely  in 
front  of  its  corresponding  stop. 

5.  Back-checks  are  lined  up  so  that  each  check 
catches  back-stop  when  hammer  has  descended 
about  one-third  of  its  total  drop  on  rebound. 

6.  Let-Off.  Jacks  are  adjusted  for  the  trip  of 
the  hammers,  which  is  done  by  turning  regulating 
screws,  using  a  regulating  screw  driver.  Ham- 
mers should  trip  at  a  distance  of  from  ^  inch 
(bass  end)  to  Vs  inch  (treble  end)  from  the 
strings. 

7.  Bridle-Tapes.  Bridle-Tapes  are  adjusted  to 
lift  wippens  evenly  and  all  together.  This  is 
tested  by  hammer  rail  up  and  down,  so  that  bridle 


220  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

tapes  lift  and  drop  accordingly.     Adjustment  is 
made  on  bridle-wires. 

8.  Bridle-wires  are  adjusted  so  that  they  do  not 
knock  against  back-check  wires  and  lie  straight 
and  square. 

9.  Dampers.  Dampers  are  adjusted  so  that 
they  lie  square  against  strings. 

10.  Rise  of  dampers  is  adjusted  by  moving 
damper-rod  back  and  forth,  so  that  it  may  be  seen 
whether  all  dampers  begin  to  move  together.  Ad- 
justment is  made  by  bending  spoons.  Dampers 
should  lift  not  more  than  about  M  inch  from  the 
strings  and  their  movement  should  begin  when 
key  is  about  one-third  of  the  way  down. 

11.  Sustaining  Pedal.  The  sustaining  pedal  ac- 
tion is  adjusted  to  lift  the  damper-rod  promptly. 
Adjustment  is  made  on  the  trap-work  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  piano  or  between  top  of  pedal  rod  and 
damper  rod. 

12.  Soft  Pedal.  Adjustment  is  made  at  ham- 
mer-rail. 

13.  Middle  Pedal.  See  supra  in  reference  to 
grand  actions. 

14.  Touch.  All  instructions  regarding  laying 
of  touch  in  the  grand  action  apply  here  to  the  up- 
right. 


The  Action  and  Its  Regulation.  221 

The  foregoing  descriptions  are  sufficient  for  the 
purposes  of  this  book.  It  has  been  my  intention 
mainly  to  give  the  reader  a  good  working  knowl- 
edge of  the  grand  and  upright  piano  actions  in  the 
light  of  their  functions.  Purposely  I  have  given 
most  space  to  the  grand  because  that  one  is  least 
understood;  whilst  everything  said  about  its  prin- 
ciples can  at  once  be  applied  to  the  upright.  The 
upright  action  is  a  series  of  turning  points,  just  as 
is  the  other.  The  upright  has  almost  the  same 
parts  and  the  same  adjustment.  But  uprights  are 
more  familiar  and  hence  better  understood. 

Regulating  Tools.  It  is  impossible  to  do  any 
good  work  in  piano  action  regulation  without  ap- 
propriate tools.  The  most  important  of  these, 
with  which  the  student  should  not  fail  to  provide 
himself,  are :  ^ 

Long  and  short  narrow-blade  screw  drivers 

Very  fine  screw  driver,  for  grand  actions 

Regulating  screw  driver 

Key  pliers 

Bending  pliers 

Small  regulating  screw  driver  for  grand  actions 

Key  spacer 

Damper  bending  iron 

Spring  adjusting  hook 


222  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

Spoon  bending  iron 

Parallel  pliers 

Capstan  screw  iron 

Hexagonal  wrench  for  Steinway  actions. 

Professional  regulators,  who  operate  in  piano 
factories,  use,  of  course,  a  much  wider  selection  of 
tools,  often  including  many  devised  by  their  own 
ingenuity.  But  the  traveling  tuner  cannot  expect 
to  carry  an  arsenal  of  tools  with  him,  nor  indeed 
to  burden  himself  with  one  single  not  actually  in- 
dispensable piece.  Yet  the  selection  suggested 
above  while  it  may  at  first  seem  formidable  in 
quantity,  really  represents  an  irreducible  mini- 
mum, below  which  the  judicious  worker  cannot  and 
will  not,  go. 


Chapter  IX. 

THE    HAMMER   AND   ITS   RELATION    TO    TONE. 

The  hammer  is  the  ''characteristic"  of  the 
piano ;  its  sign  and  symbol.  It  was  exactly  the  in- 
vention of  the  hammer,  and  of  a  movement  to  con- 
nect it  with  the  key,  that  made  the  harpsichord 
into  the  pianoforte.  The  object  of  the  labors 
which  led  Cristofori  to  his  epochal  application  of 
a  principle  until  then  regarded  as  practically  un- 
realizable, was  tonal  gradation.  He  sought  a  keyed 
stringed  instrument  of  music  susceptible  to  dynamic 
control  through  variations  in  the  stroke  of  the 
fingers  upon  its  digitals.  He  was  looking  for 
something  better  than  the  harpsichord  could  give 
him;  something  better  than  the  light  thin  tinkle 
which  represents  the  ultimate  achievement  of  any 
harpsichord,  no  matter  how  beautifully  made. 
No  increase  in  the  vigor  with  which  the  harpsi- 
chord key  is  depressed  will  do  m'ore  than  gently 
pluck  the  string.  Thin,  rippling,  tinkly,  the  tone 
of  the  harpsichord  and  of  its  kindred  claviers 
could  not  always  suffice  for  the  full  satisfaction 

223 


224    '  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

of  musical  art.  True,  the  harpsichord  persisted 
for  nearly  a  hundred  years  after  Cristofori  be- 
gan his  work  in  the  little  shop  among  the  outbuild- 
ings of  the  Medici  Palace  at  Florence ;  but  on  the 
day  he  produced  his  martello  ^  and  the  crude  move- 
ment which  connected  it  with  the  key,  not  only 
was  the  piano  born,  but  the  harpsichord  was 
doomed.  Henceforward,  percussion  instead  of 
plectral  vibration  was  to  be  the  characteristic  of 
keyed  stringed  instruments. 

The  two  hundred  years  that  have  elapsed  have 
brought  no  change  in  principle,  although  they  have 
seen  much  improvement  in  detail.  The  piano 
hammer  remains  precisely  what  it  was.  Changes 
in  the  materials  of  which  it  is  made  and  improve- 
ments in  the  mianner  of  its  manufacture  have  been 
produced  as  part  of  a  gradual  general  refine- 
ment of  our  conceptions  of  the  piano  and  of 
its  true  place.  These  conceptions  have  brought 
about  improvements  in  manufacture,  which  have 
been  accompanied  by  parallel  improvements  in  the 
machinery  of  manufacture.  But  the  principle  re- 
mains to-day  as  it  was  two  hundred  years  ago. 

Function  of  the  Hammer.  Fundamentally,  the 
piano  hammer  consists  of  a  rounded  cushion  of 

1  i.e.,  hammer. 


The  Hammer  and  Its  Relation  to  Tone.     225 

some  flexible  resilient  material  mounted  on  a 
wooden  molding  and  provided  with  a  right  angle 
stem,  the  other  end  of  which  is  connected  with  the 
piano  action.  The  object  of  the  hammer  is  to  ex- 
cite the  strings  into  vibrations.  We  know  that 
string  excitation  may  be  carried  out  in  many  dif- 
ferent ways.  When  percussion  is  the  method,  two 
elements  immediately  present  themselves  for  con- 
sideration. The  string  may  be  struck  with  greater 
or  less  vigor,  whilst  also  the  manner  in  which  the 
blow  is  delivered,  as  regards  place  on  the  string, 
nature  of  the  material,  and  so  on,  may  be  varied 
so  as  to  produce  variations  in  the  color  of  the 
tone.  In  short,  the  hammer  not  only  may  control 
the  comparative  strength  of  the  emitted  tone  but 
also  to  a  large  extent  its  color. 

Now  we  have  already  discussed  at  considerable 
length  the  influence  on  tonal  character  involved  in 
choice  of  the  point  of  contact  of  the  hammer  with 
the  string.  The  reader  will  now  wish  to  consider 
questions  as  to  the  material  of  the  hammer,  and 
the  methods  of  treating  this  material  so  as  to 
produce  in  each  individual  case  the  best  tone.  It 
will  be  advisable  to  consider  the  question  of  ma- 
terial and  workmanship  first. 

Material.    The    first    hammers    were    wedge- 


226  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

shaped  wooden  blocks  covered  with  hard  leather 
and  topped  with  a  softer  skin,  like  that  of  the  elk. 
In  the  time  of  Beethoven  the  covering  material 
was  still  leather,  although  an  oval  form  had  been 
developed.  The  felt  covering  which  has  long  sup- 
erseded all  others  was  developed  during  the  nine- 
teenth century,  principally  through  the  work  of 
manufacturers  in  the  United  States,  where  ma- 
chines for  covering  the  moldings  were  first  suc- 
cessfully made  and  used.  The  present  hammer 
consists  of  a  wooden  molding  of  approximately 
pointed  shape  over  which  is  stretched  a  strip  of 
hard  felt  known  as  the  under  felt.  This  is  glued 
in  place  and  over  it  is  fastened  in  the  same  way 
a  thicker  strip  of  softer  felt  called  the  top  felt. 
The  two  strips  of  felt  are  cut  oif  large  sheets,  and 
glued  on  to  the  hammer  moldings  in  one  piece ;  the 
moldings  themselves  being  also  in  one  piece. 
Thus  a  whole  set  of  hammer  molding  is  turned  out 
complete,  and  receives  a  strip  of  under  felt  nearly 
as  wide  as  the  whole  set  of  hammers,  which  in 
turn  receives  a  strip  of  top  felt.  The  solid  set 
is  then  taken  out  of  the  machines  and  sawed  into 
separate  hammers. 

The  sheets  of  felt  are  of  different  weights,  run- 
ning from  12  to  18  lbs.  per  sheet  or  even  higher. 


The  Hammer  and  Its  Relation  to  Tone.     227 

Hammers  are  known  as  12-lb.,  14-lb.  or  18-lb.  ham- 
mers according  to  the  weight  of  the  sheet  from 
which  their  top  felt  is  taken. 

The  sheets  themselves  are  prepared  in  tapering 
form  so  that  the  thickness  runs  from  greater  to 
less  in  a  constant  gradation  from  one  end  to  the 
other.  In  this  way  is  preserved  the  gradation  of 
thickness  in  the  hammer-felt  from  bass  to  treble 
of  the  piano.  Bass  strings,  of  course,  require  the 
heavy  hammers  and  treble  strings  the  light  ones. 

Felt.  The  peculiarities  of  hammer  construc- 
tion must  be  considered  definitely  if  we  wish  to 
become  acquainted  with  the  reasons  for  the  some- 
times peculiar  behavior  of  hammers  under  usage. 
In  the  first  place,  it  should  be  observed  that  felt  is 
a  very  different  thing  from  woven  or  spun  fabric. 
Felt  is  the  result  of  pressing  together  layers  of 
wool  in  such  a  way  that  the  fibres,  which  are  ser- 
rated or  jagged,  fasten  into  each  other  and  form  a 
solid  mass,  which  cannot  be  torn  apart  and  which 
possesses  in  a  high  degree  the  qualities  of  flexi- 
bility and  resiliency,  together  with  strength  and 
durability.  At  the  same  time  however,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  felt  is  a  material  which  is  really 
at  its  worst  when  under  tension ;  yet  hammer-felt 
is   continually   in   tension   after  the   hammer  is 


228  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

manufactured.  The  felt  sheet  is  stretched  over  a 
wooden  molding,  with  the  result  that  the  whole 
outer  surface  of  the  sheet  is  subjected  to  consid- 
erable tensional  strain,  which  tends  constantly  to 
pull  the  fibres  apart;  fibres  which  have  in  effect 
merely  been  pressed  together  in  the  process  of 
felting  and  which  therefore  are  susceptible  of  rup- 
ture under  strain. 

This  peculiarity  of  the  felt  hammer  is  seen  in 
sharp  relief  when  a  piano  has  been  used  any  length 
of  time.  But  even  before  this,  even  in  the  fac- 
tory, the  processes  of  tone  regulation  invariably 
expose  this  imperfection.  In  order  to  understand 
how  this  is  so,  however,  we  must  see  what  that 
process  is  and  how  the  condition  of  the  felt  af- 
fects tonal  result. 

Tonal  Properties  of  the  Hammer.  An  ideal 
piano  tone-color  can,  of  course,  be  expressed  in 
terms  of  a  definite  wave-form.  This  form,  we  can 
safely  assert,  differs  not  in  essentials  in  any 
pianos  made  anywhere.  All  piano  makers  of  all 
nations  are  agreed,  generally  speaking,  upon  the 
kind  of  wire  used,  the  points  of  contact,  the  em- 
ployment of  felt  hammers  and  the  general  taste 
of  the  modern  ear  for  piano  tone;  or  rather  for 
what  we  have  come  to  accept  as  good  tone  for  a 


The  Hammer  and  Its  Relation  to  Tone.     229 

piano.  Now  experiment  shows  that  a  wave-form 
produced  by  the  vibration  of  a  strong  fundamental 
with  the  following  five  partials  in  diminishing 
strength  and  if  possible  with  no  seventh  and  no 
partial  above  the  eighth,  represents  the  ideal.  At 
least,  the  very  best  piano  tone — the  kind  of  tone 
which  is  universally  accepted  as  refined,  pure  and 
noble,  is  a  tone  which,  when  analyzed,  is  seen  to 
be  expressible  in  these  terms.  Such  a  wave-form 
gives  such  a  tone. 

But  the  practical  requirements  of  piano  making 
render  the  attainment  of  this  simple  object  very 
difficult.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  not  regarded  as 
practical  to  place  the  hammer  contact-point  at  Vi 
of  each  string-length  throughout ;  though  why  this 
should  not  be  practical  it  is  very  hard  to  say. 
However,  that  piano  makers  will  not  do  this 
is  the  key  to  the  further  fact  that  the  seventh  par- 
tial is  an  ugly  and  perpetual  reminder,  in  the  com- 
plex of  piano  tone,  that  science  and  piano  making 
do  not  yet  quite  agree.  In  the  second  place,  the 
high  tension  and  density  of  the  strings  themselves 
are  very  favorable  to  the  production  of  the  higher 
partials,  especially  those  above  the  ninth.  If  the 
hammer  struck  the  string  at  H,  the  seventh  partial 
and  its  multiples  would  be  abolished.    If  also  the 


230  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

wire  were  on  the  whole  softer  and  the  tension 
lower,  than  are  usual,  the  9th  and  high  partials 
would  diminish  in  amplitude  and  consequently 
their  influence  on  tone  would  be  diminished.^ 

Now  it  is  plain  that  the  hammer  must  also  enter 
into  the  complex  as  an  influence  of  more  or  less 
power.  Putting  aside  the  question  of  contact 
points,  which  after  all  is  a  matter  for  the  scale 
draftsman  and  not  for  the  hammer-maker  or  the 
tuner,  we  are  reduced  to  three  considerations: 
(1)  the  hardness  or  softness  of  the  underfelt;  (2) 
the  hardness  or  softness  of  the  top-felt  and  (3) 
the  size  and  shape  of  the  hammer.  Let  us  con- 
sider these. 

Under  felt.  It  is  of  course  plain  that  the  under 
felt  must  be  relatively  firm  and  hard,  simply  be- 
cause the  necessity  exists  of  interposing  an  effec- 
tive cushion  between  the  hard  wooden  molding  and 
the  contact  surface.  It  is  equally  clear  that  the 
function  of  the  underfelt  is,  just  as  much,  that  of 
"backing  up"  the  softer  top  felt. 

Top  felt.  The  function  of  the  top  felt  is  to  in- 
flict the  blow  on  the  string  in  such  a  way  as  to 

1  The  published  proceedings  of  the  Cliicago  Conference  of  Piano 
Technicians  for  1917  contain  some  interesting  discussions  of  this 
point. 


The  Hammer  and  Its  Relation  to  Tone.     231 

produce  the  necessary  wave-form  required.  Now, 
it  is  plain  that  the  softer  the  top  felt  may  be,  the 
less  quickly  will  it  rebound  from  the  surface  of 
the  struck  string.  Now  a  soft  top  felt  of  course 
will  be  one  in  which  the  fibres  will  be  relatively 
more  detached  on  the  top ;  a  condition  partly  aris- 
ing from  the  fact  that  the  top  felt  is  stretched  at 
high  tension  over  the  under  felt  and  molding. 
The  cushion  of  soft  fibres  thus  formed  will  tend  to 
cling  to  the  surface  of  the  string  a  little  longer 
than  if  it  were  perfectly  smooth  and  hard.  This 
clinging  will  have  the  effect  of  damping  off  at 
least  some  of  the  high  partials  which  originate 
around  the  point  of  contact  of  the  string.  When 
it  is  understood  that  the  hammer,  even  when  new, 
presents  a  relatively  blunt  surface  to  the  string, 
the  above  can  easily  be  realized. 
Soft  and  Hard  Felt.    It  now  becomes  plain  that : 

1.  The  softer  the  top  felt  the  less  complex  will 
be  the  wave  form  and  the  more  mellow  the  tone 
quality,  due  to  damping  of  high  dissonant  par- 
tials. 

2.  The  more  sharply  pointed  the  contact  sur- 
face, the  smaller  is  the  actual  mass  of  felt 
presented  to  the  string  and  the  fewer  are  the  up- 
per partials  around  the  contact  point  to  be  damped 


232  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

by  the  contact.  Hence,  a  pointed  hammer,  other 
things  being  equal,  means  a  less  mellow  and  more 
complex  tone. 

3.  The  greater  the  velocity  of  travel  to  the 
string,  the  more  rapid  will  be  the  rebound,  since 
action  and  reaction  are  equal  and  opposite. 
Therefore  the  harder  the  hammer-stroke  the  less 
mellow  will  the  tone  quality  be,  other  things  being 
equal. 

4.  For  the  above  reason,  also,  a  lighter  hammer 
will  rebound  more  quickly  than  a  heavy  hammer 
on  a  light  hammer-stroke  and  the  heavy  hammer 
will  rebound  more  quickly  on  a  stroke  powerful 
enough  to  move  its  weight  freely  and  derive  the 
velocity-advantage  thereof. 

TJie  Voicing  problem.  The  business  of  the 
voicer  is  to  exert  such  influence  as  can  be  exerted 
by  treatment  of  the  hammer-felt,  upon  the  tone- 
quality  of  the  piano.  Fundamentally,  the  tone- 
quality  is  settled  long  before  the  voicer  sees  the 
piano.  The  design  of  the  scale,  the  general  con- 
struction of  the  piano,  the  choice  of  striking  points 
for  the  hammer;  these  and  many  other  details 
have  already  determined  the  tonal  quality  before 
any  treatment  of  the  felt  is  considered.  The 
sole  business   of  the  voicer  then  is  to   smooth 


The  Hammer  and  Its  Relation  to  Tone.     233 

out,  to  improve  if  lie  can,  what  has  already 
been  set  forth;  and  if  he  cannot  improve,  at 
least  to  put  the  best  appearance  upon  things  and 
to  make  sure  that  the  piano  goes  out  into  the  world 
under  the  most  favorable  tonal  conditions.  That 
is  the  voicer's  business,  and  he  effects  his  results 
by  the  processes  of  hammer-treating  which  I  de- 
scribe below. 

Prior  Condition  of  the  Hammer  felt.  In  the 
first  place,  let  us  keep  in  mind  that  the  top  felt  is 
less  than  an  inch  deep  over  the  under  felt  and 
molding  at  the  point  of  contact  in  the  bass,  and 
tapers  down  until  it  is  hardly  thicker  than  the 
felt  of  a  hat,  at  the  highest  treble.  This  top  felt 
is  fastened  over  the  under  felt  and  molding  in  such 
a  way  as  to  stretch  the  upper  surface  whilst  com- 
pressing the  parts  nearest  the  under  felt.  Now  it 
is  plain  that  a  structure  like  this  must  be  more  or 
less  uneven  in  texture  and  certainly  rough  on  its 
surface.  It  is  also  easy  to  see  that  any  attempt 
to  remedy  these  conditions  through  a  process  of 
working  up  the  texture  of  the  felt  must  take  into 
consideration  that  the  cushion  is  in  a  condition  of 
both  tension  and  compression,  with  a  constant 
tendency  towards  pulling  apart  its  fibres  and  dis- 
rupting its  structure. 


234  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

Smoothing  the  Surface.  Now  it  is  obvious  that 
before  any  sort  of  judgment  can  be  formed  rightly 
regarding  what  may  have  to  be  done  to  a  set  of 
hammers  in  order  to  provide  the  best  possible  tonal 
result,  the  surface  of  the  top  felt  must  be  made  as 
smooth  and  as  even  as  possible.  This  the  voicer 
does  by  a  process  generally  called  ''filing."  A 
strip  of  cigar  box  wood  is  taken,  about  wide  enough 
to  cover  the  surface  of  a  hammer  when  laid  over 
it,  with  some  space  to  spare,  but  not  wide  enough 
to  interfere  with  the  hammers  on  either  side. 
This  strip  may  be  made  of  any  suitable  wood,  but 
the  kind  spoken  of  is  particularly  convenient  and 
easy  to  obtain.  The  strip  is  made  about  seven 
inches  long.  Several  of  these  strips  are  obtained 
and  covered  with  sandpaper  by  the  simple  ex- 
pedient of  cutting  a  strip  of  the  paper  to  the  same 
width  and  twice  the  length  and  then  gluing  it  over 
the  one  edge  and  down  both  sides.  The  loose  ends 
are  trimmed  off  where  the  hand  grasps  the  instru- 
ment. Some  of  the  strips  are  covered  with  No.  2, 
some  with  No.  1  and  some  with  No.  0,  sandpaper. 

Filing.  The  ** sandpaper  file,"  as  it  is  called,  is 
used  for  the  purpose  of  rubbing  away  the  rough 
uneven  particles  and  fibres  of  the  felt  so  as  to 
produce  an  uniform  surface.     The  technic  of  the 


The  Hammer  and  Its  Relation  to  Tone.     235 

operation  may  easily  be  acquired,  but  practice  and 
patience  are  requisites  to  success.  The  action  is 
laid  on  its  back  away  from  the  piano,  if  this  be  an 
upright,  or  is  taken  out  with  its  keys  if  it  be  that 
of  a  grand,  and  placed  on  a  table  or  bench.  The 
operator  sits  with  the  backs  of  the  hammers  near- 
est to  him.  Taking  one  of  the  hammers  between 
his  thumb  and  first  finger  he  raises  it  above  the 
line  of  the  others  and  grasping  the  file  in  the  other 
hand  so  as  to  leave  as  much  of  the  sandpaper  avail- 
able as  he  conveniently  can,  he  draws  the  file  along 
the  striking  surface  of  the  felt,  beginning  at  the 
bottom  of  the  under  side  of  the  hammer  and  draw- 
ing the  file  in  a  series  of  light  strokes  towards  the 
top  or  crown  where  contact  is  made  with  the  string, 
leaving  the  actual  crown  untouched.  In  this  man- 
ner he  smooths  out  the  surface,  rubbing  away  the 
rough  outside  crust  of  the  felt  and  drawing  this 
latter  up  to  a  curl  at  the  crown.  By  so  doing  the 
position  of  the  crown  is  indicated  and  any  flatten- 
ing of  it  avoided.  Then  the  hammer  is  attacked 
in  the  same  way  on  its  other  side  and  the  smooth- 
ing out  again  terminated  at  the  crown,  so  that  now 
the  hammer  looks  like  a  bald  head  with  a  little  tuft 
of  hair  at  the  very  top ;  a  sort  of  Mohammedan  top- 
knot.    In  doing  this  apparently  quite  simple  work, 


236  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

however,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  (1)  the  strokes 
must  be  made  with  the  file  absolutely  square  on 
the  surface  of  the  felt,  or  else  the  result  will  be  a 
crooked  surface.  (2)  The  file  must  be  drawn  just 
with  enough  pressure  to  take  off  the  rough  outer 
crust  or  skin  but  not  hard  enough  to  make  dents  in 
the  surface  or  disturb  the  shape.  Careful  prac- 
tice is  therefore  necessary,  as  well  as  a  good  deal 
of  patience.  Moreover,  the  high  treble  hammers 
which  have  so  little  felt  on  them  must  be  very  care- 
fully treated,  or  the  felt  may  be  all  filed  away, 
leaving  a  bare  spot  showing  the  wood  underneath. 
This  first  smoothing  is  done  with  the  No.  2  paper. 
First  Needling.  The  voicer  now  turns  to  the 
needles.  Having  given  the  surface  of  the  ham- 
mer a  preliminary  smoothing  out,  he  must  attempt 
to  produce  an  uniform  texture  in  the  interior. 
The  object  of  so  doing  is  to  furnish  a  cushion  for 
the  immediate  contact  with  the  string,  which  shall 
be  relatively  resilient  and  uniformly  yielding, 
against  the  harder  under  felt  and  still  harder 
molding.  This  upper  cushion  however,  must  not 
be  mushy  at  the  crown  or  actual  place  of  contact, 
nor  must  its  surface  be  broken  up  and  its  fibres 
disrupted  by  unscientific  jabbing  with  needles. 
On  the  contrary,  the  object  is  to  work  the  in- 


The  Hammer  and  Its  Relation  to  Tone.     237 

side  of  the  felt  so  as  to  leave  the  outer  surfaces  as 
far  as  possible  intact,  whilst  conforming  to  the  re- 
quirements noted  here. 

The  voicer  therefore  uses  a  needle  holder  con- 
taining three  No.  6  needles,  set  in  a  row  and  pro- 
jecting not  more  than  one-half  inch  from  the 
handle.  This  handle  should  be  of  such  thickness 
that  when  grasped  as  if  it  were  a  dagger  with  the 
point  of  the  blade  (the  needles)  downwards,  it 
may  be  held  without  cramping  the  muscles.  Thus 
grasped,  it  is  used  to  stab  the  felt,  in  the  manner 
following : 

The  hammer  to  be  treated  should  be  supported 
upon  a  block  laid  under  its  stem,  so  as  to  raise 
it  above  the  line  of  hammers.  Such  a  block  is 
usually  made  wide  enough  to  support  three  ham- 
mers at  a  time.  The  needle  is  firmly  grasped  in 
the  right  hand  whilst  the  left  hand  steadies  the 
hammer.  Strokes  are  made  by  firmly  pressing  the 
needles  down  into  the  felt,  on  each  side  of  the 
crown  alternately,  as  far  as  they  will  go,  not  stab- 
bing hard  but  pressing  firmly,  avoiding  the  crown 
and  gradually  working  down  on  each  side  thereof 
to  the  very  bottom  of  the  top  felt.  The  needles 
should  enter  the  felt  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel,  of 
which  the  under  felt  represents  the  hub. 


238  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

It  is  necessary  for  the  voicer  to  estimate  from 
time  to  time  the  condition  of  the  felt  and  the 
progress  of  his  work.  At  the  beginning,  before 
he  has  filed  the  hammers,  he  will  of  course  have 
tested  the  general  condition  of  the  tone  and  will 
also  have  estimated  the  hardness  of  the  felt.  His 
work  must  continue  until  the  interior  of  each  ham- 
mer is  in  an  uniformly  resilient  condition,  with- 
out uneven  lumps  anywhere,  but  especially  with- 
out any  picking  up  of  the  surface  or  tearing  of 
the  fibres,  and  without  touching  either  the  crown 
or  the  under  felt. 

"Picking  Up."  The  abominable  practice  of 
"picking  up"  the  felt  by  digging  with  the  needles 
as  if  one  were  digging  potatoes  out  of  the  crown 
of  the  hammer,  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned. 
It  does  the  very  thing  which  should  not  be  done ; 
weakens  the  already  tightly  stretched  sheet  of  felt 
by  breaking  the  fibres  and  crushing  the  structure 
at  its  surface.  The  consequence  is  that  the  entire 
crown  is  soon  broken  up,  its  indispensable  firm- 
ness destroyed  and  contact  made  mushy  and  in- 
effective, whilst  the  interior  of  the  hammer  is  left 
virtually  in  its  original  state.  Thus  the  purpose 
of  voicing  is  entirely  missed.  The  needle-work 
should  be  done  as  indicated  and  in  no  other  way ; 


The  Hammer  and  Its  Relation  to  Tone.     239 

continuing  until  it  appears  by  the  *'feel"  of  the 
felt  that  each  hammer  is  well  worked  inside. 

Trimming  the  Crown.  The  voicer  now  trims  off 
the  felt  tuft  or  "top-knot"  on  the  crown  of  each 
hammer  with  his  sandpaper  file  and  replaces  the 
action  in  the  piano  to  test  the  tone.  It  will  then 
be  found,  probably,  that  the  quality  is  more  or  less 
mellow,  but  that  there  is  much  unevenness,  some 
hammers  being  harder  than  others.  The  voicer 
therefore  tests  the  tone  quality  by  first  running 
over  the  piano,  a  few  hammers  at  a  time,  with  a 
soft  touch  and  then  in  the  same  way  with  a  hard 
touch.  The  tone  quality  ought  to  be  the  same  in 
both  cases.  Also  the  tone  throughout  should  be 
of  even  mellowness.  To  remedy  the  unevenness 
the  voicer  uses  his  needles  as  before  on  the  faulty 
hammers,  again  avoiding  the  crown,  until  the  tone 
quality  is  evened  up  on  a  moderate  touch.  He 
then  tries  each  hammer  on  a  hard  stroke  and  if 
the  tone  quality  hardens  when  the  stroke  of  the 
key  is  very  strong,  the  voicer  takes  a  needle  holder 
containing  two  %  inch  fine  needles  and  with  these 
takes  a  few  ''deep  stitches,"  as  they  are  called, 
down  into  the  top  felt ;  avoiding  the  under  felt  and 
the  crown.     This  will  remedy  the  trouble,  which 


240  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

was  due  to  the  interior  not  having  been  worked 
sufficiently. 

Second  Smoothing.  The  hammers  are  now 
smoothed  again,  with  finer  paper  on  the  file,  and 
any  specially  hard  hammers  that  may  have  been 
noted  are  needle-worked  until  they  are  in  good 
shape.    The  action  is  then  replaced  in  the  piano. 

The  '*Dead"  Tone.  If  the  work  has  now  been 
done  rightly,  the  tone  will  be  mellow  and  even  on 
all  kinds  of  touch,  but  with  a  sort  of  ^'deadness." 
One  feels  that  it  needs  to  be  livened  up ;  and  this 
can  be  accomplished  in  the  following  manner : 

Ironing.  The  action  being  again  taken  out,  each 
hammer  is  carefully  ironed  with  a  hot  iron.  This 
tool  is  best  made  from  an  old  l^/^  inch  chisel,  of 
which  the  blade  has  been  cut  off  below  the  edge. 
Let  this  be  heated  until  a  drop  of  water  touched  to 
it  evaporates  and  then  let  each  hammer  be  well 
pressed  with  this  on  both  sides.  One  side  is  held 
with  the  hand  whilst  the  iron  is  pressed  into  the 
other  side,  working  so  as  to  direct  the  pressure 
upwards  towards  the  crown  and  bring  the  felt  in 
the  same  direction.  This  is  done  on  both  sides 
of  each  hammer  until  the  felt  is  well  scorched  and 
blackened. 

The  file  is  then  applied  again  and  the  scorched 


The  Hammer  and  Its  Relation  to  Tone.     241 

felt  cleaned  off.  The  action  is  replaced  in  the 
piano  and  if  the  work  has  been  well  done  the  tone 
has  been  ''livened  up"  and  made  clear. 

The  Crown  Stitch.  If  there  is  any  unevenness 
still  to  be  noted  in  the  tone  quality,  or  especially 
if  any  hardness  be  observed  anywhere,  one  or  two 
gentle  pressures  into  the  felt,  down  through  the 
crown  with  a  single  fine  1-inch  needle,  will  remedy 
the  trouble. 

This,  or  something  equivalent  to  it,  is  the  proc- 
ess of  voicing  as  carried  out  in  the  best  factories. 

Qualifications  of  the  Voicer.  A  good  ear  for 
tone-quality  is  the  principal  qualification  neces- 
sary for  the  voicer.  The  mechanical  technic  is 
soon  acquired  when  the  necessary  feeling  is  there. 
To  know  what  are  the  physical  requirements  of 
piano  tone  is  of  course  the  business  of  the  de- 
signer, just  as  the  same  man  should  also  know 
how  to  insist  on  the  various  works  of  construction 
being  carried  out  according  to  his  prepared  de- 
signs; but  even  so  the  voicer  himself  should  be 
equally  scientific  and  equally  able  to  take  upon 
himself  the  function  of  a  critic. 

For  instance,  the  voicer  may  perceive  that  the 
striking  distance  is  somewhat  wrong,  and  in  that 
case  it  is  his  duty  to  insist  on  changes  being  made 


242  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

which  will  remedy  the  conditions.  It  is  his  duty 
to  watch  carefully  all  points  of  the  design  and 
construction  which  have  relation  to  tone,  and  to 
suggest  such  improvements  as  his  own  knowledge 
leads  him  to  discern.  These  are  counsels  of  per- 
fection, but  they  are  necessary  nevertheless. 

A  fine  ear  for  tone-quality  may  be  acquired  by 
patient  study  of  the  physics  of  piano  construction 
and  by  constant  practice  in  the  art  of  voicing. 
No  other  possible  road  can  be  recommended  or 
even  suggested.  The  aim  and  end  of  voicing  is 
to  make  the  piano  sing  beautifully,  and  only  con- 
stant work  on  the  piano  makes  this  idea  possible 
of  realization  in  one 's  mind ;  an  indispensable  pre- 
liminary to  its  realization  in  concrete  form. 

The  Ideal.  The  ideal  piano  tone  is  that  in  which 
a  wave  form  excluding  the  seventh  and  all  par- 
tials  above  the  eighth  as  far  as  possible  shall  be 
evoked  uniformly  under  all  conditions  of  touch. 
It  is  the  object  of  the  piano  hammer  to  make  this 
tone  possible ;  and  of  the  voicer  to  carry  out  the 
technical  processes  necessary  to  prepare  the  ham- 
mer for  its  tonal  work. 

The  matter  of  repairing  old  hammers,  and  cog- 
nate matters  relating  to  the  care  of  the  hammer 
in  used  pianos,  are  discussed  in  the  next  chapter. 


The  Hammer  and  Its  Relation  to  Tone.     243 

The  rules  here  laid  down  for  the  work  of  voicing 
are  of  course  based  on  the  practice  of  factories; 
and  the  tuner  who  studies  this  chapter  is  expected 
to  understand  that  his  practice  must  be  modified 
in  accordance  with  the  condition  in  each  case. 
Old  pianos  cannot  always  be  treated  exactly  as 
described  in  this  chapter,  although  every  one  of 
the  rules  and  directions  here  given  for  each  of  the 
processes  described  and  explained,  is  to  be  fol- 
lowed, at  all  times.  This  is  important:  to  follow 
the  entire  process  may  sometimes  be  out  of  the 
question,  but  every  time  a  needle  or  a  file  or  an 
iron  is  used,  the  directions  given  above  should  be 
remembered ;  and,  as  far  as  possible,  followed  out. 
Care  of  Tools.  One  point  remains.  In  using 
his  tools  the  voicer  should  be  careful  especially 
about  keeping  the  sand-paper  files  always  covered 
with  fresh  paper,  and  about  renewing  the  needles 
whenever  they  become  dull  at  the  points.  Worn 
sand-paper  and  blunt  needles  prevent  good  work 
and  cause  waste  of  both  time  and  energy. 


Chapter  X. 

REPAIB   OF   THE   PIANO. 

Definition.  Piano  repairing,  for  the  purpose  of 
the  present  chapter,  is  held  to  include  all  the  work 
that  the  tuner  is  called  on  to  do  on  upright  or 
grand  pianos  after  they  have  taken  their  places 
in  the  purchasers '  homes.  In  chapters  which  have 
gone  before  I  have  said  a  good  deal  about  the 
technical  processes  of  piano  construction  and  ad- 
justment, but  these  remarks  have  been  concerned 
with  the  piano  in  course  of  manufacture.  The 
special  subject  of  repair  and  adjustment  of  used 
pianos  deserves  and  requires  a  special  chapter. 

Square  Pianos.  The  square  piano  is  obsolete, 
but  I  have  included  at  the  end  of  this  chapter  some 
brief  remarks  on  certain  peculiarities  of  these  old 
instruments. 

Classification  of  the  Subject.  In  order  to  make 
the  subject  more  intelligible,  I  have  adopted  the 
following  classification,  marking  out  the  subject  in 
subdivisions  and  discussing  the  particular  topic 

244 


Repair  of  the  Piano.  245 

of  adjustments  and  repairs  specifically  for  eacli. 
(1)  Tuning  pins,  wrest  plank  and  strings,  (2) 
sound  board  and  bridges,  (3)  action  and  keys  and 
hammers,  (4)  pedal  action  and  trap-work,  (5)  var- 
nish. 

Tuning-pins  and  Wrest-planh.  Old  pianos 
often  suffer  from  what  may  be  called  a  sort  of 
general  break-down  of  structure  and  this  is  es- 
pecially noticeable  in  the  wrest  plank  or  tuning 
pin  block  and  in  the  frame  work  which  supports 
the  same.  One  symptom  of  such  troubles  is  found 
in  loose  tuning  pins.  Sometimes  old  pianos  can- 
not be  drawn  up  to  pitch  without  breaking  strings ; 
or  again  often  they  will  not  stand  in  tune  even 
when  their  strings  are  pulled  up. 

1.  Loose  pins.  Tuning  pins,  of  course,  are  held 
by  the  frictional  resistance  they  develop  against 
the  cross-banded  wood  of  the  wrest-plank.  If  the 
wrest-plank  holes  have  been  worn  through  long 
use  and  much  tuning,  the  pins  will  very  likely  be 
too  loose  for  effective  resistance  to  the  string-pull. 
In  this  case,  the  obvious  remedy  is  to  hammer  them 
a  little  farther  into  the  block.  If,  however,  this 
does  not  effect  the  required  remedy,  the  tuner 
should  either  insert  a  larger  pin  or  else  put  in  a 
metal  friction  tuning  pin  sleeve.    This  consists  of 


246  •     Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

a  thin  fluted  brass  tube,  fitting  over  the  tuning  pin 
and  driven  with  it  into  the  wrest  plank  hole.  A 
worn  hole  can  be  filled  up  in  this  way  and  a  com- 
plete new  surface  provided  for  the  old  pin  to  work 
in.  A  pin  thus  treated  will  tune  perfectly,  stand 
in  tune  for  a  long  time  and  eliminate  all  driving 
of  the  pin  or  other  make-shifts. 

2.  '* Jumping"  pins.  These  may  also  be  rem- 
edied by  the  use  of  the  above  mentioned  device, 
or  else  by  the  expedient  of  removing  the  defective 
pin  or  pins,  and  blowing  a  little  powdered  chalk 
into  the  wrest-plank  hole.  The  cause  is  usually 
grease  or  oil  which  has  soaked  into  the  wrest-plank 
through  some  carelessness  on  the  tuner's  part; 
thus  producing  one  of  the  most  annoying  of  piano 
troubles.  Pins  that  jump  cannot  be  manipulated 
in  fine  tuning,  and  much  the  same  is  true  of  pins 
that  are  too  tight. 

3.  Broken  Pins.  The  best  way  to  handle  a  pin 
which  has  been  broken  off  at  the  eye  is  with  the 
tuning  pin  extractor,  which  is  a  short  steel  head 
like  that  of  a  tuning  hammer,  but  provided  with 
a  reversed  thread  tapped  in  it.  The  extractor  is 
placed  on  a  handle  of  its  own  or  can  be  had  to  fit 
on  to  a  tuning  or  T-hammer.  It  is  worked  by 
screwing  it  down  reverse  way  on  to  the  broken 


Repair  of  the  Piano.  247 

stump  of  the  tuning  pin.  This  cuts  a  thread  on 
the  stump  and  grips  it  tightly  enough  to  enable 
the  operator  to  pull  it  out  of  the  wrest-plank,  which 
is  done  by  gently  turning  it  in  the  plank  hole  un- 
til it  is  loosened  enough.  One  must  be  careful  not 
to  get  the  head  so  firmly  fastened  into  the  stump 
of  the  pin  that  it  cannot  be  unscrewed  therefrom. 
It  is  best,  in  fact,  to  turn  back  on  the  pins  a  Kttle 
way  after  starting  the  thread  and  to  keep  on  doing 
this  from  time  to  time  whilst  the  thread  is  being 
cut. 

4.  Wrest  plank  holes  split.  The  holes  in  the 
wrest  plank  in  old  pianos  sometimes  are  split 
across  the  mouth  and  it  is  occasionally  necessary 
to  block  them  up  and  re-bore  them.  In  doing  this, 
maple  dowels  should  be  used  for  the  plugs,  which 
are  driven  in  with  glue.  The  hole  is  first  reamed 
out  somewhat  and  a  dowel  driven  in  to  fit  tightly, 
so  that  when  the  hole  is  again  bored  for  re-inser- 
tion of  the  pin  there  will  be  enough  dowel  left  to 
act  as  a  bushing  all  around. 

5.  Wrest  plank  split.  It  is  better  not  to  touch 
wrest  planks  that  are  split  unless  one  is  very  sure 
of  what  one  is  doing.  Old  pianos  with  open  wrest 
planks  sometimes  give  way  at  the  gluing  between 
the  wrest  plank  and  the  back  posts ;  that  is  to  say 


248  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

along  a  line  parallel  with  the  hammers  from  bass 
to  treble,  so  that  the  entire  wrest  plank  pulls  away 
from  the  back,  carrying  the  strings  and  tuning  pins 
forward  with  it.  If  such  a  case  is  met  with  the 
tuner  may  sometime  be  able  to  repair  the  plank  as 
follows :  Loosen  up  all  strings,  screw  wrest  plank 
back  into  position  by  hand  screws,  and  leave  same 
tightened  in  place.  Eemove  all  lag-screws.  Bore 
out  lag-screw  holes  right  through  wrest  plank  and 
out  at  other  side  of  back.  Procure  threaded 
square-head  bolts  of  suitable  diameter  to  fill  lag- 
screw  holes  and  long  enough  to  stick  out  at  other 
side,  together  with  washers  for  head  and  tail  of 
same  and  nuts  to  tighten  at  back.  Have  at  least 
five  such  bolts  and  if  there  are  not  enough  lag- 
screw  holes  for  this  purpose,  bore  out  extra  holes 
through  plate  and  wrest-plank  if  necessary  to  af- 
ford further  protection.  Loosen  hand-screws. 
Pour^glue  (hot)  along  and  into  the  crack  between 
back  of  plank  and  back  post  of  piano.  Screw  up 
hand-screws  again.  Insert  bolts  with  washers  on 
at  heads,  driving  them  well  through  till  threaded 
ends  emerge  at  back.  Put  on  washers  and  nuts 
at  back  and  turn  same  down  as  far  as  they  will 
go.  Tighten  hand-screws  further  to  take  up  slack 
when  bolts  are  turned  in.     Leave  hand-screws  on 


Repair  of  the  Piano.  249 

about  four  hours.  Then  take  screws  off,  tighten 
bolts  further  if  nuts  will  turn,  clean  off  glue,  file 
off  ends  of  bolts  or  cut  them  off  with  cold  chisel 
and  file  clean,  if  they  stick  out  too  far,  draw  up 
strings  again,  tune.  This  method  will  often  suc- 
ceed perfectly.     Don't  try  to  use  liquid  glue. 

6.  Strings  Rusted.  Do  not  rub  oil  on  strings  if 
they  are  rusted.  They  may  be  cleaned  by  rubbing 
with  end  of  a  hannner-stem  dipped  in  whiting, 
using  alcohol  to  moisten.  Eust  at  the  bearings 
near  upper  bridge  or  on  the  agraffes  or  on  the 
belly-bridge  pins  or  at  the  hitch-pins  may  some- 
times be  remedied  by  the  use  of  a  little  oil  care- 
fully brushed  on.  But  the  use  of  oil  on  wire  is 
not  generally  permissible. 

7.  Tuning  pins  rusted.  The  coils  of  strings 
around  tuning-pins  can  be  cleaned,  as  well  as  the 
pins  themselves,  by  the  use  of  a  string  and  pin 
polisher,  a  device  whereby  a  rag  carrying  metal 
polish  is  pushed  in  and  around  the  coils  where  the 
hand  alone  cannot  go. 

8.  Strings  false.  False  beats  have  already  been 
referred  to  {supra,  Chapter  II),  but  the  tuner 
will  often  find  that  his  ingenuity  is  strained 
to  overcome  the  clashing  between  several  strings, 
each  of  which  generates  false  beats.    It  is  some- 


250  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

times  possible  to  tune  one  string  against  the  other, 
as  it  were,  so  as  to  play  off  one  set  of  false  beats 
against  another.  In  bad  cases,  remove  the  old 
wire  and  string. 

9.  Bass  strings  "Dead."  Bass  strings  some- 
times go  ''dead,"  losing  all  their  beauty  of  tone 
and  emitting  a  dull  hollow  sound.  Try  loosening 
string,  putting  hook  in  hitch-pin  eye,  twisting 
string  a  few  times  and  replacing  as  twisted.  This 
will  often  take  up  a  loosening  in  the  covering  wire 
that  is  a  frequent  cause  of  dead  tone.  In  bad 
cases,  remove  and  replace  with  new  strings. 

10.  Bass  strings  rattle.  This  is  usually  through 
loosening  of  the  covering  wire  or  of  the  pins  on 
sound-board  bridge.  (See  page  252.)  Remedy 
accordingly. 

11.  Treble  strings  rattle.  Causes  are  as  above. 
Sometimes  pressure  bar  is  loose,  but  be  wary  of 
tightening  too  much. 

12.  Obtaining  new  bass  strings.  Bass  strings 
must  be  made  to  order.  In  getting  new  ones,  send 
along  old  strings,  whether  one,  a  few,  or  a  whole 
set. 

13.  Defects  of  iron  plate.  Apart  from  screw- 
ing down  the  bolts  on  an  unstrung  piano  the  tuner 


Repair  of  the  Piano.  251 

can  do  virtually  nothing  with  defective  plates  save 
send  them  to  the  factory.  Broken  plates  can  be 
re-welded  by  the  oxy-acetylene  process. 

Sound-Board  and  Bridges.  14.  Sound-hoard 
split.  Small  splits  are  not  dangerous  and  do  not 
affect  tone  unless  they  cause  the  board  to  loosen 
at  the  edges.  Splits  are  caused  by  alternate  com- 
pression and  expansion  of  the  wood  due  to 
weather  and  cognate  conditions.  If  it  is  neces- 
sary to  repair  a  split,  open  same  up  with  sharp 
knife  till  it  is  even  from  end  to  end,  and  insert  a 
''shim"  or  short  strip  of  sound-board  lumber, 
which  may  be  obtained  in  quantities  from  any  fac- 
tory, using  hot  glue  and  driving  well  in.  Shims 
I  are  triangular  in  cross  section  and  are  driven  in 
sharp  edge  do^\^l.  When  dry,  they  must  be 
trimmed  off  and  smoothed  down. 

15.  Ribs  loose.  Sound-board  ribs  are  glued  in 
place.  If  they  spring  out  of  place  they  must  be 
screwed  down  by  drilling  small  hole  into  rib  from 
front  of  sound-board  and  then  driving  screw  from 
same  side  into  rib,  through  the  board,  with  a 
bridge  button  at  head  of  screw  to  take  up  uneven 
thrust.  Glue  brushed  over  surface  of  board 
where  rib  has  sprung  also  helps  screw  to  hold. 


252  Modern  Piano  Tuning, 

16.  Sound-hoard  rattles.  Usually  in  grand 
pianos  the  trouble  is  that  something  has  dropped 
onto  the  board.  Get  a  long  strip  of  steel  like  a  cor- 
set steel,  fasten  little  pad  of  cloth  on  one  end  and 
explore  surface  of  sound-board  theremth,  thus 
moving  dust  and  grit,  pins,  pennies,  etc.  In  the\ 
upright  piano,  the  fault  is  usually  looseness  Af| 
bridges,  or  splits.  Of  course  these  same  (jondi-, 
tions  occur  in  the  grand  piano  to( 


17.  Bridges  rattle.  Stpin'g^s  rattle  cm,  bridges 
when  pins  are  loQser^  Drive  pins  in  furtnar  and 
file  over  if  necessary.  In  bad  cases  put  in  longer 
pins.  If  bridge  is  split,  saw  out  split  section  to 
depth  of  bottom  of  pins,  and  send  to  facfory. 
New  part  will  be  returned  bored  and  pinned,  ^eady 
to  be  put  back  in  place,  which  should  be  done  with 
glue  and  screws.  Bridges  also  rattle  when  but- 
tons behind  are  loose  or  when  they  have  sprung 
from  surface  of  sound-board.  Re^iedies  are 
obvious.  '  '^ 

18.  Bass  bridge  loose.  Bass  bridges  sometimes 
come  away  from  the  sound-board,  especially  when 
they  are  of  the  extension  variety.  If  extensioi 
bass  bridge  splits  in  half,  remove  bass  strings  and 
re-fasten  with  glue  and  screws. 


Repair  of  the  Piano. 


253 


Action,  Keys  and  Hammers.     19.  Defects  of  up- 
right action. 


Flanges  rattle. 

Flanges  being  loose,  ham- 
mers "click"  when 
striking   strings. 

Hammers  "click"  when 
striking   strings. 


Hammers  loose  on  cen- 
ters. 


Hammers   don't   strike 
squarely. 

Center  bushings  worn. 


/ 


Centerpins  too  tight. 


Bridle  tapes  missing. 


Bridles  squeak  on  wires. 


Tighten. 
Tighten. 


Hammer  heads  loose  on  stems,  back- 
stop stems  loose  in  back-stops,  ham- 
mer stems  loose  in  hammer  butts. 
Remedy : — re-glue. 

If  center  is  split,  put  in  new  ham- 
mer butt.  If  pin  is  loose  in  flange, 
use  larger  pin  or  new  flange.  Tight- 
en flange.      — — -.. 

Stems  are  twisted.  Heat  stems  with 
alcohol  lamp  and  bend  hammer 
heads  backward  into  position. 

Cut  strip  of  bushing  cloth  triangular 
in  shape,  coming  to  point  at  apex. 
Twist  same  to  shape  of  cone,  and 
spread  on  some  glue.  Push  point 
in  through  flange  holes  whence  old 
bushings  have  been  removed.  Pull 
through  as  far  as  required.  Then 
cut  off  bushing  cloth,  trim  and  let 
dry.  This  can  be  done  on  several 
flanges  at  once. 

Push  pin  in  and  out  a  few  times,  or 
try  smaller  pin.  Don't  ream  bush- 
ing if  you  can  help  it.  Don't  oil 
bushings. 

Usually  this  means  mice.  Cut  away 
old  stumps  of  tape  and  insert  new 
tapes  with  tape  inserter.  If  no  in- 
serter is  available,  cut  groove  in 
bottom  of  butt,  near  where  tape 
goes  in,  with  hack  saw,  fold  tape 
over  and  glue  in  groove.  See  that 
length  is  right. 

Remove  from  bridle  wires,  clean  off 
all  rust.     Replace. 


254 


Modern  Piano  Tuning. 


Keys  stick  when  de- 
pressed. 

Keys  stick  on  balance 
rail. 

Keys  rattle  and  shake. 


Keys  sunk  in  middle. 


Keys  rub  in  front. 
Keys  sink. 
Key  Level  uneven. 
Lost  motion. 
Back  checks  block. 
Hammers  block. 
Repetition  bad. 
Dampers  buzz  on  strings 
Dampers   don't  rise. 
Bass  dampers  catch. 
Jack  action  feeble. 


Ease    front    rail    mortise    with    key- 
pliers. 
Ease  balance  rail  mortise. 

Re-bush  mortises,  using  bushing  cloth 
and  wooden  plug  to  hold  cloth 
whilst  drying.  New  key  top  but- 
tons can  be  had  in  sets  for  old 
keys. 

Replace  worn  punchings  on  balance 
rail  and  re-level.i  If  necessary, 
build  up  key-frame  with  card-board 
under  balance  rail. 

Re-space   and   straighten. 


See  Chapter  VIII    (regulating). 2 


Straighten  on  strings. 

Bend  damper  spoons. 

Straighten  dampers  and  re-bend  wires. 

Strengthen  springs  under  jacks. 


20.  Defects  of  grand  action.  Nearly  all  the 
above  remarks  on  the  upright  action  apply  also  to 
the  grand,  but  the  following  additional  instruc- 
tions are  also  useful. 


Hammers  out  of  line. 
Hammers  don't  check. 
Hammers  re-bound  too 

high. 
Hammers   strike   loosely. 

Hammers  squeak. 


Re-space. 

Re-bend  back  checks. 

Regulate  repetition  lever  to  trip  a 
little  lower. 

Contact  roller  Tmder  hammer  butt 
is    flattened.     Re-leather. 

Contact  roller  worn  bare.  Springs  in 
action  worn  through  felt  bushings. 
Rust  on  springs.  Remedy  accord- 
ingly- 


iSee  pages  20.5  and  218. 
2  Pages  218-219. 


Repair  of  the  Piano.  255 

Dampers    stick.  Bushings  in  rail  are   swelled. 

Dampers  don't  damp.  Straighten  on  strings,  clean  felt,  regu- 

late  fall. 

Keyboard  rattles.       "  Key  blocks  not  tight  down.     Or  key- 

frame warped.  In  latter  case,  glue 
cardboard  between  frame  and  key- 
bed. 

21.  Trap  work  in  upright  pianos.  Old  style 
wooden  trap  work  often  shakes,  rattles  and  suf- 
fers from  lost  motion.  Use  black-lead  for  squeaks 
between  springs  and  wood,  and  soap  for  trap-pins. 
Oil  pedal  bearings  when  same  are  of  metal  and 
take  up  lost  motion  at  adjusting  points  on  trap 
work.  See  especially  whether  soft  pedal  rod 
shakes  at  top  or  rattles.  This  is  a  common  de- 
fect. Use  felt  punchings  for  taking  up  lost  mo- 
tion where  no  screw  adjustment  exists.  Vaseline 
on  coiled  springs  stops  squeaks. 

22.  Trap  Work  on  grand  pianos.  The  only  dif- 
ference is  in  the  fact  that  the  grand  trap-work  is 
placed  in  a  separate  lyre.  Sometimes  the  pedal 
foot  sticks  in  the  lyre,  or  there  is  lost  motion 
due  to  worn  bushings.  The  trap  levers  are 
usually  found  under  the  key  bed  and  in  modern 
instruments  a  screw  adjustment  on  the  lifting  rods 
permits  the  taking  up  of  lost  motion.  Other  diffi- 
culties can  be  remedied  the  same  as  for  the  up- 
right. 


256  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

23.  Varnish. 


Blue  look  on  case. 


Bruises. 


Light  scratches. 


Deep  scratches. 
Renovating  old   case. 


Polishing  varnished  case. 


Oiling  off  case. 


Due  to  moisture  and  dust  combined. 
Avoid  polishes.  Simply  wash  off 
case  with  soap  and  water  and  dry 
with  chamois  leather. 

Fill  in  with  melted  sealing  wax,  if 
deep,  then  cover  with  film  of  melted 
shellac,  which  sand  paper  down, 
and  touch  up  with  French  varnish. 
To  polish  same,  rub  with  powdered 
pumice  stone  and  pad,  using  water 
to  moisten,  finish  with  rotten  stone 
and  pad  and  then  with  hand  mois- 
tened with  rotten  stone  and  water. 
Oil  off  as  below  ("Oiling  off  case"). 

Rub  down  with  powdered  piunice 
stone  and  finish  as  above.  Touch  up 
with    French    varnish    if   necessary. 

Fill  with  shellac  and  proceed  as  above. 

Scrape  off  old  varnish,  then  smooth 
case  with  sandpaper  then  with  pum- 
ice stone  rough.  When  surface  is 
clean,  re-varnish  two  coats  rubbing 
varnish,  two  days  apart,  rub  down 
rough  with  pumice  stone  and  wa- 
ter, flow  over  with  flowing  varnish 
and  then  polish,  as  below. 

After  flowing  coat  has  dried  (5  days) 
rub  down  with  pumice  stone  pow- 
der, water  and  felt  pad  till  all 
parts  are  flat.  Then  run  out 
scratches  with  rotten-stone,  water 
and  pad.  Finish  with  hand  till 
brightened  up.     Oil  off  as  below. 

Parts  being  cleaned  of  powder,  etc., 
rub  lightly  with  cheese-cloth  on 
which  has  been  poured  some  lemon 
oil.  When  this  has  been  done  well, 
wring  out  another  cheese-cloth  in 
alcohol  and  Avipe  off  lemon  oil.  Al- 
coliol  must  be  almost  dried  off  be- 
fore using  cloth. 


Repair  of  the  Piano.  257 

Checking   of   varnish.  This   occurs   in   all   pianos   after   ex- 

posure to  domestic  conditions.  Re- 
polishing  with  pumice-stone  and 
thence  as  directed  above  will  often 
remedy.    But  varnish  always  checks. 

24.  Ivory  polishing  and  repairing.  Ivory  keys 
get  yellow.  They  may  be  scraped  down  white 
again  with  ivory  scraper  or  by  fastening  down  en- 
tire keyboard  in  front  after  removing  sharps  and 
then  rubbing  back  and  forth  with  wooden  block 
covered  with  No.  1^  sandpaper. 

To  polish,  rub  ivory  with  whiting  and  alcohol. 

Touch  up  sharps  with  French  varnish. 

To  replace  badly  worn  or  loose  ivories,  take  new 
strip  of  ivory,  and  after  making  some  deep 
scratches  in  wooden  top  of  key  to  assist  glue  in 
holding,  spread  over  wood  some  glue  whitened  by 
mixing  a  little  whiting  in  the  glue  pot.  Put  ivory 
on  and  fasten  with  ivory  clamp  or  by  wrapping 
tightly  with  string.  But  clamp  is  best.  Never 
try  to  use  liquid  glue.  There  is  an  ivory  cement 
on  the  market. 

25.  General  remarks  on  the  square  piano.  Al- 
though very  few  square  pianos  remain  in  use,  the 
tuner  sometimes  has  to  work  on  these  old  instru- 
ments yet.  The  principal  defects  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows : 


258 


Modern  Piano  Tuning. 


Defects   of    sound-board 
and  bridges. 


Defects  of  case. 


Defects  of  action. 
Hammers  loose. 

Hammers  don't  strike 

squarely. 
Hammers  twisted. 
Hammers  rattle. 

Hammers  worn. 


Jacks  sluggish. 

Excessive  lost  motion  in 
action. 

Keys  rattle. 
Dampers  rattle. 

Dampers  stick. 


Dampers  don't  damp. 


Sound-board  sags  in  middle  some- 
times enough  to  cause  hammer  rail 
to  touch  it. 

Pins  in  bridges  loosen. 

Bridges  split. 

Sound-board  splits. 

Wrest-plank  sometimes  sinks  so  that 
it  is  necessary  to  pare  off  some  of 
the  under  surface  to  enable  ham- 
mer rail  to  have  free  space. 

Key  bed  often  sinks  in  middle  and 
lets  do\vn  touch  of  keyboard.  Rem- 
edy is  to  build  up  under  key  frame. 

Tighten  split  flange,  or  if  flange  is 
fixed  put  in  larger  pin.  But  see 
that  hammer  moves  freely. 

Re-space  hammer  butts. 

Bend  stems  over   with  alcohol   lamp. 

Glue  loose  somewhere.  Investigate 
and  re-glue. 

Get  new  hammers  by  removing  old 
ones  and  sending  them  in  as  sam- 
ples. Re-capping  with  leather  is 
usually  very  poor  policy. 

Springs  are  usually  weakened.  Re- 
place or  strengthen. 

Screw  up  jack  rockers  but  leave 
enough  play  to  ensure  jack  getting 
back  into  place  under  hammer. 

See  directions  for  uprights. 

Bushings  of  lifter  wires  are  loose  or 
worn. 

Bushings  swelled.  Heat  lifter  wire 
and  push  in  and  out  of  bushing  till 
same  is  expanded. 

Probably  damper  levers  don't  co-act 
with  lifter  wires.     Re-space. 


Other  defects  can  be  understood  and  remedied 
by  study  of  previous  instructions  on  upright  and 
grand  pianos. 


Repair  of  the  Piano.  259 

26.  The  Old  ''English"  Square  Action.  The 
old  English  square  action  is  still  occasionally  met 
with.  In  this  the  hammer  is  supported  by  an 
under-hammer  which  is  raised  by  the  key  and  the 
regulation  for  the  escapement  of  the  jack  is  on  the 
key.  All  parts  are  usually  very  small  and  deli- 
cate and  instead  of  pinned  centers  there  are  often 
hinges  of  parchment  or  vellum.  Great  care  is 
necessary  in  handling  these  old  actions,  which  are 
usually  much  sunk  and  out  of  line,  but  the  tuner 
will  find  that  individually  to  study  each  case  is  the 
only  sound  advice  that  can  be  given. 

27.  Tools.  The  importance  of  good  tools  can- 
not be  overestimated.  There  is  no  greater  mis- 
take than  to  suppose  that  one  can  do  good  work 
with  bad  tools.  Many  special  tools  are  manu- 
factured for  the  use  of  piano  makers  and  tuners, 
and  all  of  them  are  useful.  Eegulating,  especially, 
calls  for  many  tools  of  special  design,  such  as 
regulating  screw  drivers,  spoon  benders,  key 
spacers,  key  pliers,  wire  benders  and  others  of  the 
same  sort.  Special  conveniences  are  also  to  be 
found  such  as  pocket  glue  pots,  center  pin  car- 
riers, wire  carriers  and  similar  articles.  The 
tuner  should  take  pride  in  having  the  best  possible 
tools  and  in  carrying  them  most  conveniently  and 


260  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

accessibly.  Some  of  tlie  tool  kits  put  up  by  vari- 
ous manufacturers,  containing  complete  sets  of 
tools  for  all  kinds  of  outside  work  on  pianos  and 
player-pianos,  are  extremely  attractive  and  prac- 
tical.    I  know ;  for  I  have  used  them. 

My  own  experience  proves  amply  the  value  of 
some  advice  which  was  given  me  when  I  started 
out  as  a  tuner:  ''Get  the  best  tools,  learn  to  use 
them  skilfully  and  keep  them  in  perfect  condi- 
tion. This  alone  may  not  make  you  successful, 
but  without  this  respect  for,  and  care  of,  your 
tools  you  will  never  get  anywhere. ' ' 

Nor  can  one  atford  to  neglect  the  matter  of  ap- 
pearance. The  tuner  does  much  of  his  work  in  the 
customer's  house.  He  is  largely  judged  by  the 
appearance  of  his  clothes,  by  his  manner,  and  like- 
wise by  the  workmanlike  or  unworkmanlike  ap- 
pearance of  his  tools.  A  neat  case  of  bright,  clean, 
fine-looking  tools  is  an  advertisement:  it  is  also 
an  aid  to  efficiency. 


Chapter  XI. 

ELEMENTARY   PNEUMATICS. 

It  is  not  my  intention  in  the  following  chapters 
of  this  book  to  write  an  exhaustive  treatise  on 
pneumatics.  Elsewhere  I  have  subjected  the  piano 
player  mechanism  in  its  present  condition  to  treat- 
ment of  a  technical  sort  at  some  length  and  to  this 
other  volume  the  reader  is  invited  for  a  more  com- 
plete survey  of  the  facts  surrounding  the  con- 
struction and  operating  principles  of  these  mech- 
anisms. In  the  present  chapter,  I  have  indeed  en- 
deavored to  set  forth  simply  and  clearly  the  req- 
uisite facts ;  but  in  a  more  condensed  fashion.  To 
treat  the  subject-matter  again  in  all  completeness 
would  be  to  write  another  volume  beginning  at  this 
page;  but  this  is  unnecessary,  for  the  reasons 
stated.  At  the  same  time,  I  feel  it  proper  to  say 
that  the  reader  who  wishes  to  be  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  the  player  mechanism,  and  is  not 
satisfied  merely  to  know  that  which  every  tuner 

261 


262  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

must  anyhow  know  to-day  about  players,  should 
study  the  subject  systematically.^ 

Need  of  Instruction.  It  is  no  secret  that  the 
arrival  and  rapid  progress  of  the  player-piano 
have  been  most  seriously  disturbing  to  those  mem- 
bers of  the  tuning  profession  whose  views  are 
already  formed  and  their  methods  more  or  less 
settled;  in  short,  to  the  older  and  more  conserva- 
tive tuners.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  as  late  as  the 
year  1896  very  few  tuners  had  ever  given  serious 
thought  to  the  possibility  of  a  mechanism  for  piano 
playing  being  developed  at  all;  much  less  to  the 
possibility  of  its  becoming  immensely  important 
to  the  trade  and  a  knowledge  of  it  in  some  shape 
essential  to  success  as  a  tuner.  That  this  should 
ever  happen  would  have  been  thought  absurd; 
that  it  should  happen  within  fifteen  years  would 
have  been  thought  ludicrously  impossible.  Yet 
the  impossible  has  become  the  possible,  the  ''could- 
not-be"  has  become  the  Is.  The  player-piano  is 
with  us;  most  of  us  have  been  caught  quite  un- 
prepared for  it. 

Scope  of  these  chapters.  In  the  circumstances, 
seeing  that  already  nearly  one-half  of  the  pianos 

1  The  book  referred  to  is  "The  Player  Piano  Up-to-Date,"  pub- 
lislied  by  Edward  Lyman  Bill,  Inc.,  N.  Y.,  1914. 


Elementary  Pneumatics.  263 

made  in  the  United  States  are  player-pianos  and 
that  the  ordinary  upright  piano  without  player 
seems  positively  to  be  doomed,  it  is  plain  that  one 
could  not  very  well  avoid  writing  some  chapters 
on  the  player  mechanism  in  a  book  like  this.  On 
the  one  hand,  then,  I  have  attempted  to  make  sure 
that  the  information  given  here  shall  be  always 
clear,  accurate  and  intelligible ;  whilst  on  the  other 
hand  I  have  not  failed  to  remember  that  the  tuner 
whose  interest  in  the  player  is  confined  to  attain- 
ing such  acquaintance  with  it  as  will  enable  him  to 
make  necessary  small  adjustments  and  trace  the 
cause  of  apparent  defects  in  its  performance,  will 
neither  require  nor  desire  a  lengthy  treatise.  To 
be  accurate  and  intelligible  whilst  being  also  very 
brief  is  not  easy ;  but  I  hope  that  I  have  succeeded 
measurably  well  in  carrying  out  this  requirement. 
In  this  and  the  two  following  chapters,  then, 
I  undertake  to  set  forth  briefly  (1)  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  pneumatic  player  mechanism 
(2)  a  general  description  of  the  modern  player- 
piano  in  its  pneumatic  aspect  and  (3)  such  instruc- 
tions as  experience  shows  to  be  most  useful  in  the 
adjustment  and  repair  of  defects.  The  treatment 
is  such  that  the  reader  will  have  no  difficulty  in 
following  everything  set  down  here. 


264  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

The  Mechanism.  The  player  mechanism, 
whether  it  be  built  right  into  the  piano  or  placed 
in  a  cabinet  detached  therefrom,  is  self-contained 
and  entirely  independent  of  the  piano.  Usually 
to-day  it  is  interiorly  built,  fitting  into  waste  space 
within  the  case  of  the  upright  piano.  It  is  also 
now  fitted  into  grand  pianos,  but  in  its  principal 
embodiment  remains  an  addition  to  the  ordinary 
upright,  built  within  the  case,  but  independent  of 
and  not  interfering  with  the  regular  action,  scale 
or  sound-board.  The  player  mechanism  can  be 
withdrawn  from  the  piano  case  very  readily  and  is 
in  all  respects  separate  from  the  musical  instru- 
ment itself. 

The  function  of  the  player  mechanism  is  to 
render  musical  compositions  by  playing  upon  the 
piano  action,  either  through  the  keys  or  directly 
upon  the  abstracts  or  wippens  thereof. 

The  player  mechanism  runs  on  power  furnished 
by  bellows  blown  by  the  performer. 

Various  means  for  expression  are  provided,  con- 
trolled either  automatically  or  at  the  will  of  the 
performer,  the  objects  of  which  are  to  permit,  as 
required,  variation  of  speed,  use  of  damper 
lift,  loud  and  soft  stroke  of  hammers,  and 
division  of  melody  from  accompaniment  parts. 


Elementary  Pneumatics.  265 

All  these  requisites  are  made  possible  by  the  use 
of  simple  auxiliary  devices. 

The  selection  of  notes  for  the  performance  of  a 
composition  is  undertaken  by  the  aid  of  a  web  of 
perforated  paper,  spooled  on  a  core  and  called 
a  "music-roll.'* 

Source  of  Power,  The  power  for  operating  the 
player  mechanism  is  furnished  by  bellows  oper- 
ated by  the  feet  of  the  performer  through 
treadles.  The  operation  of  the  bellows  system  is 
not  at  all  hard  to  understand.  In  fact,  the  entire 
player  mechanism  works  on  a  system  so  generally 
simple  that,  once  its  principle  is  grasped,  the 
reader  can  reason  out  immediately  the  method  of 
operation  and  the  function  of  any  part. 

Pressure  and  Weight  of  Air.  The  air  of  the 
atmosphere  in  which  we  move  and  which  we 
breathe  is  invisible  and  virtually  intangible.  Yet 
it  is  just  as  much  to  be  reckoned  with  as  so  much 
iron  or  wood.  Its  density  is  less  than  that  of  the 
other  materials  mentioned,  but  is  measurable 
nevertheless.  Scientific  observation  has  proved 
that  air,  like  all  forms  of  what  is  called  matter,  has 
weight.  A  column  of  air  one  inch  square  and  the 
height  of  the  atmosphere  has  a  weight  of  very 
nearly  14.75  pounds  or  236  ounces ;  so  that  we  may 


266  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

say  that  the  air  of  the  atmosphere  exerts  a  pres- 
sure at  its  bottom  (the  surface  of  the  earth),  of 
about  14.75  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Expansion.  Air  is  a  gas  and  all  matter  in  a 
gaseous  state  has  the  property  of  expanding  con- 
tinuously to  fill  any  space  in  which  it  may  find 
itself.  This  expansive  property  together  with 
the  weight  of  air  is  the  foundation  of  the  operation 
of  all  pneumatic  machines. 

The  air  normally  fills  at  normal  pressure  all 
closed  spaces  capable  of  containing  air.  It  is 
everywhere  and  always  present  at  normal  pres- 
sure, unnoticed  and  unconsidered,  until  by  some 
artificial  means  it  is  either  rarefied  or  condensed. 
Then  work  can  be  done  by  means  of  it.  If  a  closed 
bag,  which  is  normally  filled  with  air  according 
to  the  natural  facts  of  the  case,  be  shut  off  and 
closed  so  that  no  more  air  can  get  into  it  from  the 
outside,  and  if  then  the  bag  be  enlarged,  without 
any  more  air  being  allowed  to  flow  into  it,  the 
contained  air  will  have  to  expand  to  fill  up  the 
enlarged  space.  In  so  expanding,  the  air  is  acted 
on  like  the  rubber  in  a  rubber  band  which  is 
stretched.  It  becomes  thinned  out,  so  that  any 
cubic  inch  of  it  now  weighs  less  than  a  cubic  inch  of 
it  weighed  before  it  expanded.    Hence  the  pres- 


Figure  21. 

Essential    parts    of    player    mechanism,    pneumatic    open;     (not 

to  scale) 
267 


"'^^v-'-" '  •  ."n 


^^fe^ 


Pedals 


Figure  22. 

Essential    parts   of   player   mechanism,    pneumatic   closed;     (not 

to  scale) 
268 


Elementary  Pneumatics.  269 

sure  exerted  by  any  quantity  of  it  is  less  after  ex- 
pansion than  before.  Hence,  again,  the  atmos- 
phere outside,  which  has  retained  its  normal  pres- 
sure of  14.75  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  is  able  to 
exert  an  effective  pressure  on  the  outside  walls 
of  the  bag,  because  the  inside  pressure  is  reduced 
owing  to  the  expansion  of  the  bag;  and  hence  the 
balance  between  the  outside  and  inside  air  is  dis- 
turbed. 

Disturbance  of  Balance.  The  player  mechan- 
ism operates  entirely  through  this  disturbance  of 
balance  as  between  the  atmosphere  and  bodies  of 
air  contained  within  enclosed  spaces. 

Look  at  the  illustrations  on  pages  267  and  268, 
which  show  the  various  parts  of  a  player  mechan- 
ism drawn  out  in  the  simplest  possible  way  to  show 
the  operation  of  each  part,  but  not  drawn  in  pro- 
portion or  according  to  any  particular  existing 
player.  In  fact  the  object  of  the  drawings  is  to 
show  only  the  operation  of  the  principle. 

Simplest  case  of  pneumatic  mechanism.  At 
the  bottom  of  the  illustrations  will  be  observed 
the  bellows  with  two  ''exhausters,"  operated  by 
the  foot  pedals,  and  one  ''equalizer."  One  of 
these  exhausters  is  open  and  the  other  closed. 
But  let  us  suppose  that  the  player  is  in  a  state  of 


270  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

rest  with,  therefore,  both  foot  pedals  untouched 
and  both  exhausters  closed.  The  compression 
springs  behind  the  exhausters  hold  them  closed 
normally.  Well,  now,  the  exhausters  being  norm- 
ally closed,  the  reader  will  observe  that  (1)  the 
outside  air  can  find  its  way  into  the  ''pneumatic" 
through  the  channels  and  the  top  of  the  valve;  (2) 
the  long  channel  from  tracker  bar,  over  which  the 
perforated  paper  moves  to  the  valve  pouch,  will 
also  contain  any  air  that  may  have  flowed  into  it 
when  a  perforation  in  the  paper  was  registered 
with  the  tracker  bar  hole ;  and  (3)  through  the  lit- 
tle ''vent,"  which  is  just  a  pin  hole  in  a  cap,  the  at- 
mosphere flowing  in  from  the  tracker  bar  will  also 
fill  the  reduced  pressure  chamber  and  therefore 
the  entire  bellows  system,  which  is  in  connection 
with  it.     This  is  the  normal  or  at  rest  condition. 

Operation  of  Exhausters.  If  now,  the  foot  is 
placed  on  a  pedal  and  one  exhauster  pushed  open, 
see  what  happens.  Assuming  that  the  tracker 
bar  channel  is  sealed  by  the  paper  for  the  moment, 
as  when  no  note  is  being  played,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  operation  of  the  exhauster  simply  means 
that  the  whole  inside  cubical  content  of  the  player 
is  enlarged  by  the  exhauster  being  opened;  the 
player,  in  fact,  being  made  larger  inside  by  just 


Elementary  Pneumatics.  271 

the  volume  of  the  exhauster.  True  to  its  nature, 
therefore,  the  air  in  the  various  parts  of  the  player 
expands  equally  to  fill  up  this  space.  But  the  il- 
lustrations show  that  a  flap  or  strip  of  leather 
covers  the  openings  between  the  inner  wall  of  the 
exhauster  and  the  interior  of  the  player.  This 
strip,  however,  is  pushed  aside  by  the  rush  of 
normal-pressure  air  into  the  empty  opened  ex- 
hauster, which  continues  until  the  pressure  on 
either  side  of  the  strip  is  equalized.  Therefore 
a  quantity  of  air  filling  the  exhauster,  but  at  lower 
than  normal  pressure,  is  now  trapped  in  the  ex- 
hauster, since  it  cannot  get  back  through  the  door 
which  it  opened  once  and  is  now  holding  closed 
(the  strip) ;  for  this  door  is  held  shut  by  a  spring 
just  strong  enough  to  keep  it  against  the  pressure 
on  the  inside  of  the  player,  and  further,  is  of 
course  held  by  the  pressure  now  in  the  exhauster. 
But,  the  exhauster  being  now  all  the  way  open,  and 
the  pedal  all  the  way  down,  the  heavy  compres- 
sion-spring outside  tends  to  close  the  exhauster 
again.  Besides,  the  foot-pressure  is  now  natur- 
ally released  for  the  return  of  the  pedal.  There- 
fore the  exhauster  begins  to  close  and  in  closing 
squeezes  the  air  inside  it,  which  is  trapped  there 
and  cannot  get  back  inside  the  player,  until  it  is 


272  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

enough  compressed  to  force  its  way  out  through 
the  outer  strip  or  flap  into  the  atmosphere,  being 
forced  out  by  the  closing  of  the  exhauster.  Once 
squeezed  out,  the  exhauster  is  shut,  and  anyhow 
no  more  air  can  get  back  in  through  the  strip  or 
flap  which  presses  on  the  outside  of  the  exhauster. 
Therefore  we  see  that  one  opening  and  closing 
of  the  exhauster  has  withdrawn  a  definite  quant- 
ity of  air  from  the  interior  of  the  player  and  has 
expelled  it  into  the  atmosphere.  Therefore  a 
** partial  vacuum,"  as  it  is  called,  is  set  up  inside 
the  player;  or,  in  other  words,  the  pressure  of 
all  the  air  inside  the  player  has  been  lowered. 

Valve.  This  being  the  case,  the  atmospheric 
pressure  on  top  of  the  valve  holds  it  down  firmly 
on  its  seat  and  shuts  off  the  reduced  pressure 
chamber  from  the  outer  air,  whilst  conversely  the 
pneumatic  is  open  to  that  air  and  therefore  re- 
mains at  rest. 

Reduced-pressure  Chamber.  Thus  the  situa- 
tion when  the  pedals  are  being  operated  is  as 
follows:  Pressure  of  air  is  being  constantly  re- 
duced, inside  the  player,  in  the  reduced-pressure 
chamber,  in  the  tracker  bar  channel  (though  on 
account  of  the  smallness  of  the  vent,  to  a  smaller 
degree),  in  the  trunk  channel  between  bellows  and 


Elementary  Pneumatics.  273 

pneumatic  action  and  in  the  equalizer.  Now  sup- 
pose that  a  hole  in  the  paper  registers  with  the 
tracker  bar  hole : 

Operation  of  Valve.  Immediately,  the  atmos- 
phere, which  has  of  course,  been  pressing  against 
the  paper,  finds  its  way  down  against  the  reduced- 
pressure  air,  through  the  tracker  channel  and  un- 
der the  pouch,  losing  a  little  by  the  way  through 
the  vent.  The  pouch  being  larger  than  the  top  of 
the  valve  button,  rises  against  the  pressure  on  the 
button,  and  lifts  the  valve  spindle  with  its  buttons. 
At  once,  as  may  be  seen,  outside  air  connection 
with  the  pneumatic  is  shut  off,  whilst  connection 
is  simultaneously  made  between  the  pneumatic 
and  the  reduced  pressure  chamber.  Hence  the 
heavy  normal  air  in  the  pneumatic  ''falls"  by  its 
own  weight  into  the  reduced  pressure  chamber,  re- 
ducing the  pressure  in  the  pneumatic.  The  atmos- 
phere therefore  presses  against  the  moving  wall 
of  the  pneumatic,  closing  the  same  and  putting  the 
piano  action  into  operation. 

When  the  perforation  passes  over  and  the  paper 
again  seals  the  tracker  bar  hole  and  channel,  the 
normal  air  under  the  pouch  and  in  the  channel  no 
longer  is  re-inforced  by  supplies  from  the  outside 
and  in  consequence  (since  the  bellows  are  oper- 


274  Mod&rn  Piano  Tuning. 

ated  continuously  and  the  reduced  pressure  cham- 
ber always  therefore  is  in  a  state  of  partial 
vacuum,  being  never  in  contact  with  the  open  air 
except  at  times  through  the  very  small  vent),  this 
normal  air  in  the  channel  '* falls"  into  the  re- 
duced pressure  chamber  as  quickly  as  it  can  ''fall" 
in  through  the  vent  (air  being  elastic  in  all  direc- 
tions, can  ''fall,"  as  I  call  it,  up  as  well  as  down). 
Therefore,  partial  vacuum  again  exists  in  the  chan- 
nel and  under  the  pouch,  so  that  the  valve-stem 
is  no  longer  held  up  with  its  buttons  but  again 
sinks  down  and  is  held  down  by  the  atmospheric 
pressure  on  its  top  button.  Therefore  again  the 
pneumatic  is  shut  off  from  the  reduced  pressure 
chamber  and  placed  in  contact  with  the  atmos- 
phere, so  that  it  fills  with  air  at  normal  pressure, 
and  forthwith  opens.  This  operation  may  be  re- 
peated over  and  over  again,  quite  as  rapidly  as 
the  piano  action  can  operate,  and  in  fact,  even 
more  rapidly;  provided  the  necessary  sequence 
of  perforations  is  present  on  the  paper  roll. 

This  is  the  operation  of  the  player  mechanism. 
But  we  have  yet  to  speak  of  one  important  ac- 
cessory; the  equalizer. 

Equalizer.  The  equalizer  is  a  reversed  ex- 
hauster.    Normally  it  is  held  open  by  a  spring. 


Elementary  Pneumatics.  275 

It  is  also,  as  will  be  seen,  connected  pneumatically 
with  the  remainder  of  the  bellows  system  and  with 
the  upper  action  of  the  player.  When  the  exhaust- 
ers begin  their  work,  the  air  in  the  equalizer  ex- 
pands along  with  the  rest  and  part  of  it  moves  out- 
ward to  the  air,  so  that  the  pressure  in  the  equal- 
izer is  also  reduced.  If  the  pressure  is  enough 
reduced  to  overcome  the  expansive  power  of  the 
spring  (which  never  exceeds  8  ounces  per  square 
inch  of  area  on  the  moving  wall  of  the  equalizer 
and  usually  is  much  less,  so  that  a  displacement  of 
about  3  per  cent,  of  the  contained  air  is  enough 
to  enable  the  atmosphere  to  balance  the  spring  and 
neutralise  it),  then  the  equalizer  starts  to  close. 
Whilst  closing,  it  does  no  effective  work,  but  is  in 
fact  a  drag  on  the  bellows.  When,  however,  owing 
to  an  increase  in  the  number  of  tracker  bar  holes 
open,  or  to  slowing  up  of  the  pedaling,  or  increased 
speed  of  the  motor,  or  to  any  other  cause,  the 
effectiveness  of  the  exhausters  is  reduced  for  a 
time,  the  equalizer,  forced  by  its  spring,  begins 
to  open;  and  in  opening  becomes,  of  course,  an- 
other exhauster,  automatically  displacing  air  from 
the  player  and  holding  it  till  the  exhauster  can 
take  care  of  it  and  expel  it.  This  is  the  function 
of  the  equalizer. 


276  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

Of  course,  the  reader  is  well  aware  that  there 
are  many  variations  on  the  simple  system  here 
described,  but  all  depend  on  exactly  the  same  prin- 
ciples, whether  one  or  another  kind  of  bellows  be 
used,  whether  single  or  double  valve  system  be 
adopted,  and  whether  the  most  elaborate  or  the 
simplest  expression  devices  be  provided.  In  the 
next  chapter,  I  discuss  the  general  varieties  of 
construction  amongst  the  players  usually  met  with. 

Motor.  The  motor  system  is  equally  easy  to 
understand.  As  will  be  seen  by  the  illustration 
on  the  next  page,  the  motor  consists  of  small 
bellows  called  ' '  pneumatics, ' '  mounted  on  a  block 
which  is  perforated  with  one  long  tube  running 
through  it  from  the  bellows,  provided  with  ports 
called  ** suction  ports"  which  penetrate  to  the 
outside  of  the  remote  surface  of  the  frame.  Each 
pneumatic  is  also  provided  with  a  port  which  runs 
between  its  interior  and  the  outer  surface  of  the 
same  block.  A  slide  valve  slides  over  the  pair 
of  ports  belonging  to  each  pneumatic  and  is  con- 
nected with  a  crank  shaft  by  means  of  a  connect- 
ing rod,  the  pneumatic  itself  being  also  connected 
to  the  crank  shaft. 

Operation  of  Motor.  Now,  when  the  bellows  are 
operating  below  and  the  suction  port  is  in  pneu- 


rmtumajtic  op 


Cotnnec\irt<i  t\< 


action  Port"  t6Bellov/5 


— S/ide  VaWe. 


Open  A\r  Port' 


ransmiS^Jon, 


Figure  23. 

Sectional  view  of  pneumatic  motor,  showing  pneumatics,  ports, 
slide  valves,  and  connections. 


277 


278  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

matic  connection  therewith  by  means  of  the  tempo 
lever  which  opens  a  gate  situated  in  a  suitable 
gate-box,  the  air  pressure  in  the  suction  tube  is  re- 
duced. When,  therefore  a  slide  valve  is  in  such 
a  position  that  it  covers  both  the  suction  port  and 
the  outer  air  port  belonging  to  any  pneumatic  (see 
the  illustration),  the  air  in  the  pneumatic  flows 
outwards  into  the  suction  port  and  thence  into 
the  channel  and  so  to  the  bellows.  This  causes 
the  outside  air  to  press  against  the  moving  wall 
of  the  pneumatic  and  begin  to  close  it.  This  clos- 
ing moves  the  connecting  rod  and  turns  the  crank 
shaft,  which  in  turn  brings  the  slide  valve  along 
till  the  suction  port  is  closed  and  the  outer  air 
port  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  when  the  pneu- 
matic again  fills  and  opens,  thus  continuing  the  ro- 
tary motion  of  the  shaft  and  completing  it.  When 
a  number  of  pneumatics,  usually  four  or  five,  are 
arranged  around  a  crank-shaft  at  suitable  angles, 
a  continuous  rotary  motion  is  given  to  the  shaft 
and  the  motor  develops  enough  power  to  turn  the 
take-up-spool  around  which  the  paper  roll  winds. 
Motor  Governor.  The  operation  of  the  motor 
governor  is  equally  easy  to  understand.  As  will 
be  seen  by  the  illustration  on  next  page,  air  which 
travels  from  the  motor  passes  into  a  sort  of  small 


I 

o 


\\\\v\vv\v 


SvVWVWWWV^ 


279 


280  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

equalizer,  held  open  by  a  spring.  In  passing  this, 
it  goes  through  an  opening  which  may  be  covered 
by  a  valve  block,  the  movement  of  which  depends 
upon  the  position  of  the  moving  wall  of  the  aux- 
iliary equalizer.  The  movement  of  this  wall  de- 
pends upon  the  power  of  its  expansion  spring. 
If  this  spring,  for  instance,  is  at  such  tension  that 
it  pulls  back  on  the  wall  with  a  pull  equal  (say),  to 
3  ounces  per  square  inch  of  the  wall's  surface, 
then  the  equalizer  will  close  down  as  soon  as  the 
pressure  inside  is  reduced  enough  to  give  the  out- 
side atmosphere  more  than  3  ounces  effective  pres- 
sure per  square  inch.  In  so  closing  it  tends  to  shut 
off  the  travel  of  air  through  itself  from  motor  to 
bellows  and  thus  governs  the  motor  so  that  no 
matter  how  hard  or  how  gently  one  pumps,  that  is 
to  say  no  matter  how  much  or  how  little  partial 
vacuum  there  is,  the  governor  acts  accordingly, 
closing  or  opening  as  required  but  always  main- 
taining such  an  opening  that  increased  velocity  of 
air  travel  shall  be  balanced  by  smaller  area  of 
opening,  or  decreased  speed  by  larger  area,  main- 
taining always  the  same  pull  on  the  motor  and 
keeping  its  speed  steady  irrespective  of  the  state 
of  the  pumping  on  the  pedals. 

Tempo-Box.     To  change  speed,  however,  or  to 


Elementary  Pneumatics.  281 

shut  off  entirely,  the  governor  includes  a  tempo-box 
containing  (see  illustration),  two  valves  operated 
by  slides  over  them.  When  the  re-roll  slide  is 
closed,  and  the  tempo  closed  also,  no  air  can  pass 
from  motor  further  than  to  these  slides,  and  so 
the  motor  stops.  When  the  tempo  slide  is  opened, 
air  can  pass  through,  and  according  to  the  area  of 
the  opening,  as  determined  by  position  of  the 
tempo  lever  and  hence  of  the  tempo  valve  slide, 
the  motor  runs  slower  or  faster.  The  more  air 
is  displaced  in  a  given  time,  the  faster  it  runs; 
and  this  is  governed  by  the  size  of  the  opening. 
Steadiness  is  governed  by  the  motor  governor  and 
speed  by  the  tempo  valve. 

The  re-roll  valve  is  used  to  run  the  motor  very 
fast  when  re-rolling  the  paper  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  piece.  In  most  players  it  is  independent  of 
the  governing  pneumatic,  though  the  illustration 
here,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity,  does  not  show  such 
an  arrangement. 

Many  other  accessory  devices  are  used  in  vari- 
ous players,  but  these  I  reserve  for  treatment  in 
the  next  chapter,  where  I  shall  speak  of  the  prin- 
cipal existing  types  of  players  and  the  peculiari- 
ties of  each.  In  the  same  chapter  also  I  shall 
touch    on   valve-systems,    accessories,    individual 


282  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

peculiarities  and  so  on,  in  just  enough  detail  to 
enable  the  reader  to  recognize  these  when  he  meets 
them;  and  to  understand  their  operation  and  du- 
ties. 

Physical  Facts.  In  conclusion,  I  append  the  fol- 
lowing summary  of  physical  facts,  which  should 
be  learned  by  heart  and  carried  in  the  memory : 

1.  Air,  like  all  matter  in  any  state,  possesses 
weight;  that  is,  air  is  affected  by  the  universal 
law  of  gravitation. 

2.  Air,  therefore,  exerts  pressure  at  the  surface 
of  the  earth. 

3.  This  pressure  is  about  14.75  pounds  per 
square  inch  at  sea  level,  but  being  equal  and  uni- 
form in  all  directions  is  normally  not  felt. 

4.  The  normal  pressure  of  the  air  cannot  be^ 
used  unless  a  body  of  air  in  which  the  pressure 
has  been  artificially  reduced  is  placed  in  opposi- 
tion to  it.     Then  it  can  be  used. 

5.  This  principle  of  "disturbance  of  balance"  is 
the  foundation  of  the  entire  player  system. 

6.  The  player  uses  very  low  effective  pressure. 
Whereas  a  perfect  vacuum  would  mean  that  the 
outside  air  could  exert  its  entire  pressure  of  14.75 
pounds  to  the  square  inch  on  the  moving  parts,  it 
is  impossible  to  obtain  working  pressure  on  the 


Elementary  Pneumatics.  283 

moving  parts  higher  than  from  11/2  to  2  pounds  per 
square  inch.  In  other  words,  the  degree  of  vacuum 
obtained  inside  the  player  does  not  exceed  at  the 
most  15  per  cent,  and  is  usually  less  than  10  per 
cent. 

7.  All  air  expands  immediately  when  its  con- 
tainer is  enlarged  or  when  part  of  it  is  with- 
drawn from  its  container  without  more  coming  in. 
This  expansion  reduces  pressure,  in  proportion 
to  its  extent. 

8.  The  player  bellows  operate  by  enlarging  the 
containing  space,  causing  the  contained  air  to  ex- 
pand, then  by  means  of  suitable  flap-valves  ex- 
pelling the  displaced  air  on  the  closure  of  the  bel- 
lows, and  thus  producing  a  state  of  reduced  pres- 
sure inside  the  player;  so  that  the  outer  air  can 
operate  against  the  moving  parts  thereof  by  pres- 
sure on  their  outer  surfaces. 

The  above  statement  of  principles  applies  per- 
fectly to  every  possible  arrangement  of  devices, 
parts  or  accessories  found  in  any  player  mechan- 
ism made. 


Chapter  XII. 

GENERAL   CONSTRUCTION  OF  PLAYER  MECHANISMS. 

Piano-playing  mechanisms  have  been  developed 
after  two  general  types.  One  of  these  is  the  de- 
tached or  cabinet  player,  consisting  of  a  separate 
mechanism  enclosed  in  a  case  and  mounted  on 
castors  so  that  it  may  be  moved  about  readily.  It 
is  secured  in  front  of  the  piano,  with  its  fingers 
resting  over  the  piano  keys ;  and  when  the  piano 
is  to  be  used  for  manual  playing,  it  may  be  moved 
away.  This  type,  self-contained  and  involving  no 
modification  of  the  piano,  was  the  first  to  come  on 
the  market,  and  the  earliest  specimens  date  from 
the  year  1897.  Some  five  years  after  their  first 
appearance,  their  popularity  was  menaced  by 
the  ** player-piano,"  as  it  came  to  be  called,  which 
contains  both  elements  in  the  one  case.  From  that 
time,  the  prestige  of  the  cabinet  player  declined, 
until  to-day  one  seldom  meets  it. 

The  other  type  is  of  course  the  *' player-piano " 
of  to-day,  consisting  of  a  player  mechanism  built 

284 


Co7istruction  of  Player  Mechanisms.      285 

into  the  waste  space  inside  the  outer  casing  of  a 
piano  and  combining  in  the  one  structure  both  the 
ordinary  piano  and  the  playing  mechanism,  in 
such  a  way  that  neither  interferes  with  the  other 
and  the  piano  can  be  played  in  the  ordinary  way 
if  desired.  I  propose  to  give  some  general  ac- 
count of  both  types,  although  the  cabinet  player 
needs  only  brief  mention. 

The  Modern  Player  Piano.  The  modern  player 
piano  consists  of  an  ordinary  piano,  of  which  the 
case  is  usually  somewhat  widened,  containing  in 
the  space  between  the  action  and  the  top  and 
bottom  panels,  a  playing  mechanism  for  operating 
each  of  the  eighty-eight  sections  of  the  piano  ac- 
tion. This  mechanism  is  commonly  divided  into 
two  grand  divisions;  known  respectively  as  the 
Bottom  Action  and  the  Top  Action.  These  I  shall 
describe  in  turn. 

Bottom  Action.  The  Bottom  Action  is  that  part 
of  the  mechanism  placed  beneath  the  key-bed  of 
the  piano,  and  is  commonly  one  self-contained 
piece  of  machinery.  Sometimes  a  few  of  its  ac- 
cessory devices  are  placed  away  from  it  and  con- 
nected with  it  by  tubes.  The  Bottom  action  itself 
comprises  principally  the  exhaust  bellows,  the 
pedal  action  attached  to  them,  and  the  equalizer 


286  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

system.  This  is  known  as  the  '*  bellows-system, " 
and  to  it  are  commonly  attached  various  sub- 
sidiary devices,  such  as  the  motor  governor,  the 
expression  governor,  the  action-cut-off  valve,  and 
the  pneumatic  sustaining-pedal  action.  The  bot- 
tom action  is  of  course  connected  with  the  top  ac- 
tion (comprising  the  pneumatic  stack  and  spool 
box  with  motor),  by  means  of  two  main  air  tubes, 
one  at  the  left  side  connecting  with  the  pneumatic 
stack  and  one  at  the  right  with  the  motor. 

Bellows.  The  modem  bellows  system  is  a 
highly  sensitive  organism,  comprising  two  exhaust 
units  connected  to  foot-treadles,  and  one  or  two 
equalizers.  The  double  equalizer  system  is  the 
more  common  of  late.  The  two  exhausters  are 
each  kept  closed  with  a  spring  of  about  7  pounds 
pressure,  whilst  the  equalizers  (if  there  are  two), 
are  spring-expanded  (kept  open)  by  springs  re- 
spectively of  14  and  28  pounds.  The  latter,  or 
high  tension,  springs  are  often  re-inforced  further 
by  means  of  an  extra  wood-spring  external  to 
the  equalizer  and  designed  to  come  into  action  only 
when  the  equalizer  is  half  closed.  The  idea  of 
having  two  equalizers  is  simply  to  ensure  that 
the  bellows  system  shall  not  '*go  dead"  on  very 
hard  pumping ;  which  means  that  the  two  equaliz- 


Construction  of  Player  Mechanisms.      287 

ers  shall  not  both  close  up  and  remain  closed  until 
the  tension  has  been  relieved  by  momentary  stop- 
page of  pumping.  With  a  good  mechanism,  well- 
made,  and  with  heavy  pumping,  this  might  happen 
if  the  spring  pressure  on  an  ordinary  equalizer 
were  no  more  than  14  pounds  total,  for  this  would 
not  be  much  more  than  2  ounces  per  square  inch  on 
the  wall  of  the  equalizer.  If  the  equalizer  did  re- 
main closed  it  would  simply  be  out  of  action,  for 
it  is  plain  ^  that  it  does  no  work  till  it  begins  to 
open  after  being  closed.  Hence  the  double  spring- 
pressure  on  the  high  tension  equalizer. 

Two  well  known  types  of  mechanism  (the  Auto- 
pneumatic  Action  Co.'s  *' Auto-De-Luxe"  and  the 
Standard  Pneumatic  Action  Co.'s  ** Standard"), 
are  provided  with  a  special  device  in  the  equalizer 
known  as  the  ''crash  bellows"  (though  just  why 
this  name,  I  do  not  know) .  This  is  simply  a  small 
bellows  placed  inside  the  equalizer  over  the  con- 
necting passage  which  runs  outward  to  the  main 
channel  and  to  the  exhauster,  in  such  a  way  that 
a  sudden  raising  of  the  tension  level,  due  to  hard 
pumping,  will  close  do^vn  the  small  bellows  over 
the  opening  and  for  the  moment  cut  off  the  equal- 
izer, thus  giving  the  bellows  that  much  less  air- 

iCf.  Chapter  XI. 


288  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

space  to  exhaust  and  therefore  increasing  its  rela- 
tive power.  As  soon  as  the  effect  of  the  sudden 
extra  pumping  work  has  evaporated,  the  crash 
bellows  again  open  and  the  equalizer  is  once  more 
thrown  into  operation. 

Motor  Governor.  The  bellows  system  includes 
always,  whether  immediately  placed  on  itself,  or 
at  one  side  of  and  pneumatically  connected  with 
it,  what  is  called  a  "motor  governor."  This  de- 
vice has  been  essentially  described  in  the  previous 
chapter  and  it  is  therefore  now  only  necessary  to 
remark  that  it  is  commonly  fitted  with  a  spring, 
adjustable  for  tension,  and  with  some  sort  of  ad- 
justing screw  for  limiting  the  closing  of  its  bel- 
lows. The  speed  of  the  motor  is  increased  by  in- 
creasing the  tension  of  the  spring.  That  is  to  say, 
the  motor,  irrespective  of  the  tempo-valve,  may  be 
caused  to  move  at  a  speed  greater  on  any  tempo 
valve  position  than  originally  it  is  adjusted  to 
give  on  that  position ;  and  incidentally  on  all  other 
positions.  This  general  raising  of  the  speed  level 
on  all  positions  proportionately  may  be  accom- 
plished by  stiffening  the  spring.  This  simply 
means  that  the  stiffer  spring  imposes  greater  re- 
sistance to  the  closing  of  the  motor  governor  bel- 


Construction  of  Player  Mechanisms.      289 

lows,^  so  that,  for  any  given  rate  of  pumping,  the 
cut-off  valve  in  the  governor  closes  less ;  but  this 
again  means,  of  course,  that  proportionately  more 
effort  is  required  to  pass  the  displaced  air  through 
the  larger  opening.  Thus  the  effect  of  stiffening 
the  spring  is  indeed  to  increase  the  speed,  but  only 
by  giving  the  opportunity  to  the  performer  to  get 
that  higher  speed  by  harder  work  on  the  treadles, 
although  the  fact  that  the  work  is  harder  is  usually 
not  perceived. 

In  just  the  same  way  the  tension  may  be  re- 
leased somewhat,  with  consequent  quicker  closing 
of  the  governor,  quicker  cut-off  and  lower  general 
speed  level. 

Adjusting  screw.  An  adjusting  screw  is  found 
on  all  motor  governors,  or  on  nearly  all.  Its  ob- 
ject is  to  control  the  proportionate  closing  of  the 
bellows.  In  some  types  this  screw  simply  abuts 
on  a  block  inside  the  governor  so  that,  the  further 
it  is  turned  in,  the  less  the  governor  can  close.  In 
other  kinds  the  screw  bears  against  one  end  of  a 
rocking  lever  of  which  the  other  end  controls  the 
cut-off  valve,  so  that  the  further  the  screw  is 
turned  in  the  more  the  cut-off  valve  is  closed  up. 

iCf.  Chapter  XI. 


290  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

To  determine  the  particular  system  used  in  any- 
given  case,  one  must  know  the  player,  or  else  must 
experiment  with  it  to  discover  which  method  is 
used.  The  Auto-pneumatic  and  Standard  players 
use  the  first  system  and  the  Gulbransen,  the  Cable 
Inner-Player  and  others  use  the  second. 

The  point  is  that  if  the  motor  is  unsteady  on 
changes  of  pumping,  the  screw  adjustment  may 
be  used  to  make  correction  of  the  fault.  Such  un- 
steadiness shows  that  the  governor  closes  too  much 
or  too  little,  as  the  case  may  be.  If  the  motor 
drags  on  light  pumping,  so  that  its  speed  falls, 
that  shows  that  the  governor  closes  too  much  and 
either  its  spring  is  too  light  or  the  adjusting 
screw  must  be  turned  to  limit  its  closing.  If  the 
motor  races  on  hard  pumping,  that  shows  that  the 
governor  closes  not  enough,  or  else  that  the  spring 
is  too  stiff.  If  the  general  speed  is  right,  then  the 
fault  is  in  the  adjustment  of  the  governor ;  which 
is  corrected  as  described. 

Expression  Governors.  Some  players  (^olian, 
Auto-pneumatic,  some  types;  Price  &  Teeple,  A. 
B.  Chase,  Cable,  Angelus,  etc.),  are  fitted  with  an 
additional  governor  on  the  bellows-system  known 
as  the  Expression  Governor.  The  principle  of 
its  operation  is  of  course  identical  with  that  of 


Construction  of  Player  Mechanisms.      291 

the  motor  governor,  but  the  object  of  its  existence 
is  different.  The  motor  governor  exists  to  main- 
tain a  steady  level  of  power,  but  the  object  of 
the  expression  governor  is  to  enable  quick 
changes  to  be  made  from  a  fixed  governed  low 
level  to  the  ungoverned  (high)  level  at  which  the 
exhausters  of  the  bellows  system  are  working  at 
any  moment.  All  sorts  of  detail  differences  are 
possible,  and  existing,  with  regard  to  the  construc- 
tion of  such  devices ;  but  the  type  illustrated  here 
(based  on  the  system  used  in  the  Auto-pneumatic 
mechanism),  will  serve  the  purpose  of  descrip- 
tion. 

It  will  be  observed  that  we  have  a  governing 
bellows,  or  auxiliary  equalizer,  held  open  by  an 
expansion  spring.  This  bellows  stands  in  the 
channel  from  pneumatic  action  to  bellows  so  that 
air  displaced  from  the  action  must  flow  through 
it  on  the  way  to  the  bellows.  A  small  hinged 
valve  block  stands  over  the  channel  running  to 
the  bellows,  and  is  pressed  downwards  by  a  spring 
on  to  the  stop-block  on  the  moving  wall  of  the 
auxiliary  equalizer  or  governor  bellows.  It  is 
plain  that  unless  (as  shown  in  the  illustration), 
the  valve  block  were  held  up  forcibly  by  the  button 
on  the  threaded  wire,  it  would  drop  down  over  its 


292 


Construction  of  Player  Mechanisms.      293 

orifice  in  proportion  as  tlie  governor  might  close 
under  pumping.  But  as  normally  arranged,  the 
wire  is  placed  to  hold  the  block  up  and  away  from 
the  stop  block  of  the  governor,  and  so  even  if  the 
governor  does  close,  it  does  not  cut  off  the  air 
passage.  If,  however,  the  accent  lever  on  the  key- 
slip  of  the  player  is  thrown  over,  the  wire  drops 
and  allows  the  accent  valve  block  to  fall  on  the 
stop-block  and  thus  permits  the  governor  to  act, 
for  now  the  cut-off  comes  into  action  and  the  air 
passage  is  reduced  in  area  so  that  the  available 
vacuum  is  low  enough  to  give  only  light  power 
and  soft  playing.  When,  conversely,  the  accent 
lever  is  allowed  to  throw  back  to  its  normal  posi- 
tion, the  wire  again  pushes  up  the  valve-block  and 
the  governor  is  again  thrown  out  of  action.  It  is 
evident  that  by  alternating  from  low  to  high  pres- 
sure, a  series  of  instantaneous  changes  from  soft 
to  loud  can  be  had,  thus  giving  accentuation. 
This  device  is  sometimes  called  the  ''soft  expres- 
sion governor,"  although  the  name  is  inadequate 
and  misleading.  ''Expression  governor"  is  cor- 
rect. 

Various  other  systems  and  types  are  used,  but 
the  above  described  method  shows  the  principle 
thoroughly.    It  is  simply  a  case  of  the  governor 


294  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

being  normally  cut  out  of  action,  and  then  of  hav- 
ing it  thrown  into  action,  to  soften  the  playing 
when  required. 

The  same  effects  could  be  had  by  a  pneumati- 
cally operated  pouch  valve,  with  a  button  instead 
of  a  lever.  Likewise,  the  accenting  effect  can  be 
had  by  perforations  in  the  roll  operating  on  a 
pouch-valve  as  aforesaid. 

Sustaining  Pedal  Pneumatic.  In  many  play- 
ers the  sustaining  pedal  is  operated  by  a  direct 
mechanical  lever  system  without  the  use  of  any 
pneumatic  device.  But  of  late  years  there  has 
arisen  a  desire  for  automatic  control  of  the  sus- 
taining pedal  effects,  through  perforations  in  the 
music  roll,  and  at  the  same  time  many  retailers 
have  expressed  a  preference  for  a  pneumatically 
operated  button  instead  of  a  direct  lever.  In  this 
case  a  large  pneumatic  equipped  with  a  valve 
system  is  placed  near  the  bottom  of  the  piano, 
adjacent  to  the  damper  lift-rod  and  connected 
with  it  so  that  the  rod  can  be  raised  when  the 
pneumatic  collapses.  This  pneumatic  system  is 
connected  to  the  main  bellows  system  by  means 
of  a  tube,  and  so,  when  the  player  is  working,  the 
vacuum  chamber  of  the  system  is  in  a  state  of 


Construction  of  Player  Mechanisms.      295 

partial  vacuum.  Hence  when  air  is  admitted  un- 
der tlie  valve  pouch  or  pouches  by  depression 
of  a  button  or  by  opening  of  a  perforation  in  the 
tracker-bar,  the  pneumatic  collapses  and  the  sus- 
taining pedal  action  operates,  lifting  the  damper 
from  the  strings. 

Soft-Pedal  Pneumatics.  Another  very  com- 
mon expression  device  is  a  pair  of  pneumatic  sys- 
tems, connected  with  the  bellows  system  and 
placed  on  each  side  thereof,  or  above  the  line  of 
hammers  at  bass  and  treble  ends  of  the  piano, 
whereby  the  hammer  line  of  the  piano,  artificially 
divided  by  a  split  auxiliary  rail,  may  be  raised 
toward  the  strings  of  the  piano,  all  together,  or 
one  half  at  a  time.  The  method  of  operation  is 
just  the  same  as  described  for  the  sustaining  pedal 
action,  except  that  the  pneumatics  can  be  made 
smaller,  since  the  weight  to  be  overcome  by  each 
is  not  great.  A  pair  of  buttons  on  the  key- slip 
control  the  admission  of  air  under  the  valve  sys- 
tems of  the  pneumatics.  When  half  the  rail  is 
lifted  whilst  the  other  half  remains  in  normal  posi- 
tion, the  blow  of  the  hammers  which  rest  against 
the  former,  is  shortened,  with  resultant  softening 
of  the  sound  produced  by  them.     Thus,  in  a  some- 


296  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

what  rough  way,  the  accompaniment  part  of  a 
composition  may  be  subdued  as  against  the  mel- 
ody voices. 

Sometimes  a  pair  of  direct  acting  finger  levers 
on  the  key-slip  are  used  to  lift  the  split  hammer- 
rail  without  resort  to  pneumatic  devices. 

What  is  known  as  the  ''floating"  hammer-rail 
is  also  sometimes  used.  This  is  simply  an  ar- 
rangement whereby  the  hammer  rail  and  the  ordi- 
nary piano  soft  pedal  action  are  attached  to  the 
moving  wall  of  the  equalizer  of  the  bellows  sys- 
tem so  that  as  the  equalizer  sways  back  and  forth 
the  hammer  rail  is  moved  forward  towards,  or 
back  from,  the  strings.  On  hard  pumping,  when 
the  equalizer  closes  up,  the  hammers  recede  from 
the  strings ;  and  on  soft  pumping,  when  the  equal- 
izer opens  again,  they  approach  the  strings,  thus 
modifying  the  length  of  the  hammer  blow  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  pumping,  and  imparting  a  more 
flexible  quality  to  the  dynamic  control  of  the 
player. 

Action  Cut-off.  In  all  player-pianos  the  action 
is  cut  off  from  playing  whilst  the  motor  is  re- 
winding the  paper,  by  a  door  thrown  across  the 
main  passage  from  action  to  bellows.  When  an 
expression  governor  is  used,  this  cut-off  is  usually 


Construction  of  Player  Mechanisms.      297 

incorporated  in  the  same  box  with  the  rest  of  the 
governor,  and  when  two  are  used  two  such  cut- 
offs are  necessary,  one  for  the  bass  and  the  other 
for  the  treble  side  of  the  pneumatically  divided  ac- 
tion. This  door  is  usually  operated  by  the  direct 
mechanical  action  of  the  re-roll  lever,  which  at 
the  same  time  shifts  the  gear  on  the  motor  and 
opens  the  re-roll  valve  in  the  tempo-box.  Some- 
times, however,  a  pneumatic  cut-off  is  used 
(Gulbransen,  Cable,  etc.),  which  operates  by  the 
.re-roll  lever  opening  an  air  passage  which  lets 
air  down  into  a  partial-vacuum  chamber,  raising 
a  pouch  and  thus  cutting  off  the  piano  action  by 
covering  the  wind- way. 

Re-roll.  The  re-roll  operates  in  the  same  way, 
through  a  re-roll  lever,  whereby  the  gear  of  the 
motor  transmission  is  reversed  and  simultaneously 
a  large  valve  opened  in  the  tempo  box,  not  passing 
through  the  governor,  whereby  the  motor  can  be 
speeded  up  in  re-rolling.  Sometimes  a  pneumatic 
gear-shifting  device  is  used  (Cable). 

Silencer.  When  a  pneumatic  action-cut-off  is 
used,  another  button  may  also  be  placed  on  the 
key-slip  letting  in  air  to  operate  the  cut-off  valve 
without  changing  the  transmission  gear  of  the 
motor.     Then  the  motor  will  run  forward  without 


298  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

the  action  playing,  as  is  sometimes  required  for 
passing  rapidly  over  a  part  of  a  roll  which  the 
performer  does  not  wish  to  play.  As  sometimes 
built,  the  "Silencer"  also  opens  the  large  re-roll 
valve  in  the  tempo  box,  again  without  shifting 
gears,  so  that  the  motor  can  race  ahead.  This 
is  only  possible,  of  course,  when  the  re-roll  valve 
is  controlled  by  a  pouch  instead  of  a  direct  action 
slide-valve. 

Bleed-Jioles.  All  the  valve  systems  described 
above  as  operating  the  various  non-speaking 
pneumatics,  require  of  course  the  usual  "bleed- 
holes"  or  "vents"  for  the  purpose  of  flushing  out 
the  air-tubes  running  from  tracker  bar  or  button. 

Top  Action.  The  top-action,  so-called,  of  the 
player-piano  consists  of  (1)  the  pneumatic  stack 
(2)  the  motor  and  (3)  the  tracker-bar  with  its  in- 
cidental accessory  devices.  Let  us  take  these  in 
order. 

Pneumatic  Stack.  In  the  previous  chapter  I 
have  described  the  principles  of  design  in  a  pneu- 
matic action  controlled  by  a  single  valve.  This 
description,  roughly  speaking,  holds  good  for  all 
players  of  what  is  called  the  "single-valve"  type, 
which  means  the  type  where  one  valve  only  is 
used  between  the  tracker  bar  and  the  speaking 


Construction  of  Player  Mechanisms.      299 

pneumatic.  The  so-called  '*  double-valve  "  type  is 
exactly  the  same,  save  that  between  the  valve 
which  directly  controls  the  pneumatic,  and  the 
tracker  bar,  is  another  smaller  valve  called  the 
''primary"  valve.  This  valve  is  lifted  by  the 
air  which  flows  down  the  tracker  tube  and  in  lift- 
ing exposes  an  opening  of  larger  size  than  the 
tracker  perforation,  down  which  flows  air  to  the 
** secondary"  valve,  which  directly  controls  the 
pneumatic.  The  two  valves  therefore  are  inter- 
dependent, neither  one  being  effective  unless  the 
other  is  also  effective.  It  is  not  true,  as  may  be 
seen  by  examining  any  double  valve  action,  that 
the  one  valve  operates  the  pneumatic  if  the  other 
does  not.  The  main  reason  for  the  use  of  the 
second  valve  is  found  in  the  desire  to  use  a  pneu- 
matic larger  than  can  be  effectively  exhausted  by 
the  operation  of  a  valve  small  enough  to  be  read- 
ily controlled  by  the  amount  of  air  which  can  flow 
down  the  tracker  tube  in  any  given  time. 

Only  one  vent  or  bleed  hole  is  needed  in  the 
''double"  action,  as  the  secondary  channels  are 
flushed  by  their  air  flowing  back  into  the  primary 
chamber  and  thence  out  to  the  bellows. 

Assembly.  The  pneumatic  stack  is  assembled 
above  the  keys,  with  the  pneumatics,  in  some  sort 


1. 

2. 
3. 

4. 

5. 

5a 

6. 

7. 


Pres- 


Music  Koll. 

Take-up  Spool. 

Tracker  Bar. 

Tracker-Tube. 

Primary  Pouch. 

Secondary  Pouch. 

Vent. 

Primary  Reduced  Pressure 
Chamber. 
7a.  Secondary    Reduced 
sure  Chamber. 

Primary  Valve. 
8a.  Secondary  Valve. 
9.     Pneumatic  Open. 

Pneumatic  Closed. 

Primary-Secondary 
nel. 

Passage  to  Bellows  System. 

13.  Piano  Key. 

14.  Piano  Action. 


Chan- 


FlGURE  26. 

Sectional  view  of  Double- Valve  Action  showing  pneumatics  open 

and  closed. 
300 


Construction  of  Player  Mechanisms.      301 

of  operative  relation  to  the  piano  action,  whether 
directly  by  contact  with  the  wippens  of  the  ac- 
tion or  indirectly  through  fingers  or  rocking  levers. 
Whether  the  pneumatics  face  forwards  towards 
the  front  of  the  piano  keyboard  or  towards  the 
strings,  makes  no  special  difference.  The  valve 
system  of  the  single-valve  stack  is  mounted  so 
that  each  pneumatic  is  placed  immediately  above 
or  below  its  valve,  in  two,  three  or  more  banks. 
The  secondary  valves  of  the  double  system  are 
placed  in  a  chamber  behind  the  pneumatics  with 
the  primary  chamber  and  its  valves  above.  It  is 
usual  to  assemble  the  stack  so  that  pneumatics 
can  be  detached  from  their  positions  and  valves 
taken  out,  cleaned  and  regulated.  In  some  play- 
ers (Kimball,  etc.),  a  separate  channel  above  the 
action  is  provided  to  carry  the  vents,  and  this 
channel  then  exhausts  into  the  pneumatic  stack, 
or  directly  into  the  bellows  system. 

Motor  and  transmission.  No  special  further 
description  of  the  motor  and  transmission,  in  addi- 
tion to  what  has  already  been  said  in  the  previ- 
ous chapter  is  needed  here.  In  fact,  it  only  re- 
mains to  recount  that  four,  five  and  six  single- 
unit  bellows  are  variously  used  by  makers,  some 
with  a  valve  slide  to  each  pair  and  some  with  a 


302  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

slide  to  each  individual ;  whilst  again  some  motors 
are  made  with  double  units,  having  two  bellows, 
one  above  the  other,  working  on  each  connecting 
rod.  Some  special  types  are  also  known,  such  as 
the  cylinder  motor  of  Gulbransen  and  his  later 
models  with  their  oscillating  and  rotary  valves. 
But  in  all  cases  the  principle  involved  is  that  which 
has  already  been  described. 

The  spring-actuated  motor  of  Melville  Clark 
must  also  be  remembered,  but  it  needs  no  special 
description  here. 

The  transmission  is  a  simple  form  of  gear  set, 
whereby  the  motor  may  drive  either  the  take-up 
spool,  for  winding  forward,  or  the  chucks  on  which 
the  roll  turns,  for  re-winding  at  the  close  of  a 
piece. 

Spool  Box.  The  Spool  Box  is  a  rectangular 
open  frame  in  which  are  placed  the  tracker  bar, 
the  take  up  spool  and  the  music  roll  chucks,  in 
addition  to  any  tracker  bar  or  roll  shifting  device 
that  may  be  incorporated.  Its  various  parts  may 
be  described  as  follows : 

Tracker  bar.  The  tracker  bar  is  usually  of 
solid  brass  pierced  with  88  perforations,  nine  to 
the  transverse  inch,  and  with  any  extra  perfora- 
tions that  may  be  required  for  the  non-speaking 


Construction  of  Player  Mechanisms.      303 

pneumatic  devices.  From  its  rear  tlie  perfora- 
tions branch  out  into  tubes  of  rubber  or  metal 
which  carry  from  each  to  its  corresponding  valve 
and  pneumatic  in  the  pneumatic  stack.  Some- 
times (Clark,  Gulbransen,  etc.),  the  tracker  bar 
can  be  shifted  by  a  thumb  nut  in  the  spool  box,  so 
that  any  failure  of  perforations  in  the  paper  roll 
to  register  properly  with  the  tracker-perforations, 
can  be  corrected.  In  other  cases  take-up  spool 
and  music  roll  chucks  are  moved  by  a  mechanical 
device  (Cable,  etc.). 

Extra  perforations.  Extra  perforations  used 
as  follows :  a  large  perforation  at  the  left  side  for 
the  sustaining  pedal,  small  perforations  in  dupli- 
cate at  either  side  for  automatic  accent  devices 
(see  supra,  this  chapter),  and  marginal  small  per- 
forations for  automatic  tracking  devices  (see  in- 
fra). In  some  cases  the  latter  perforations  are 
superseded  by  moveable  tongues  of  metal  or  simi- 
lar devices  to  press  against  the  edge  of  the  paper. 
Player-pianos  of  the  electric-motor-driven  type 
have  also  additional  perforations  to  operate  auto- 
matic start-and-stop  pneumatics  placed  on  the  bel- 
lows system  and  working  into  tempo  and  action 
box. 

Automatic  tracking  devices.    Although  there  are 


304  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

a  dozen  different  varieties  of  these,  the  intention 
in  each  case  is  the  same  and  the  principle  similar. 
The  idea  is  that  if  the  paper  shifts  transversely  in 
the  course  of  its  longitudinal  travel,  its  own  shift- 
ing shall  operate  devices  to  bring  it  back  into  line. 
The  well  known  device  used  in  the  Auto-de-Luxe 
and  allied  players  works  as  follows:  At  either 
margin  of  the  tracker  is  a  pair  of  very  small  holes 
leading  to  tracker-tubes  which  run  into  a  valve- 
system  controlling  pneumatics,  one  to  the  outer 
and  one  to  the  inner,  pair  of  holes.  These  pneu- 
matics are  connected  with  a  lever  system  to  the  left 
hand  music-roll  chuck,  so  that  this  chuck  is  moved 
transversely  from  left  to  right,  accordingly  as  the 
corresponding  pneumatic  is  operated.  The  music- 
roll  is  always  normally  held  hard  against  this 
moveable  chuck  by  the  pressure  of  the  spring  in 
the  other  (left-hand)  chuck.  When  the  roll 
travels  as  it  should,  in  true  register,  its  edges  just 
cover  each  pair  of  marginal  perforations.  When, 
however,  the  paper  shifts  transversely,  through 
any  cause  whatsoever,  and  so  is  thrown  out 
of  register  with  the  tracker-bar,  one  pair  of 
holes  is  covered,  which  lets  air  down  the  cor- 
responding tracker-tubes,  operates  valves  and 
the    corresponding    pneumatic,    and    causes    the 


Construction  of  Player  Mechanisms.      305 

movable  chuck  to  be  moved  transversely  so  as 
to  push  the  paper  back  into  register  again.  The 
box  on  which  the  valves  and  pneumatics  are 
mounted  is  placed  at  the  left  side  of  the  spool  box, 
the  side  opposite  to  that  on  which  the  motor 
stands. 

There  are  a  dozen  types  of  this  device,  as  I  have 
said,  but  examination  of  them  will  show  that  they 
all  operate  in  essentially  the  same  way. 

The  ^^ parlor"  electric  player.  The  so-called 
''home  electric"  or  "parlor  electric"  player  is 
not  new  but  a  modification  of  existing  player- 
pianos  devised  to  take  care  of  a  demand  that  may 
or  may  not  be  lasting.  The  additions  consists  of 
an  auxiliary  exhaust  set,  usually  of  three  small  ex- 
hausters mounted  on  a  crank  shaft  and  driven  at 
relatively  high  speed  by  a  small  electric  motor. 
This  can  be  used  to  exhaust  the  action  in  place 
of  the  ordinary  foot-driven  bellows.  The  ordi- 
nary bellows  system  and  treadles  are  retained,  and 
no  other  change  is  made  save  an  extra  pneumatic 
governor-box  to  permit  the  starting  of  motor,  stop- 
page of  motor  and  cut-off  of  pneumatic  stack 
when  required  at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  a 
piece  respectively.  These  are  controlled  by  addi- 
tional perforations  in  paper  and  tracker  bar. 


306  Modern  Pimio  Tuning. 

65-note  players.  The  65-note  player  is  a  thing 
of  the  past,  but  of  course  many  were  made 
and  are  yet  in  use.  They  cannot  be  said  to  differ 
very  much  from  the  more  perfected  types  of  which 
they  are  the  ancestors,  save  that  the  parts  are 
larger  and  clumsier  and  on  the  whole  much  less 
accessible.  In  many  cases  the  pneumatic  stack  is 
built  below  the  key-bed  so  that  it  is  necessary  to 
withdraw  the  latter  before  one  can  get  at  the 
action  at  all.  Although  only  65  notes  are  oper- 
ated, so  that  there  are  23  fewer  pneumatics  than 
we  need  to-day,  old  pianos  of  this  type  are  often 
quite  astonishingly  clumsy  and  huge. 

It  is  well  to  note  the  following  points  as  exhibit- 
ing differences  from  modern  player-pianos: 

1.  The  tracker  scale  is  wider,  having  6  perfora- 
tions to  the  transverse  inch.  The  roll  is  therefore 
somewhat  wider  also. 

2.  The  rolls  are  pinned  at  the  flanges,  which 
means  that  a  different  sort  of  chuck  to  hold  them 
is  needed. 

3.  The  action  is  sometimes  placed  below  the 
key-bed  and  when  this  is  so  it  is  nearly  always 
necessary  to  take  out  the  entire  bed  to  get  at  the 
action  for  repair  or  regulation. 

4.  Combined  65-  and  88-note  tracker  bars  were 


Construction  of  Player  Mechanisms.      307 

used  for  a  time  after  the  first  appearance  of  the 
88-note  player.  In  all  of  these  it  is  well  to  look 
out  for  leaks  in  the  tracker  and  for  all  the  an- 
noyances thereby  caused.  These  combination 
players  are  now  no  longer  made,  however,  ex- 
cept on  order. 

The  Cabinet  Player.  Although  the  old  cabinet 
or  outside  player  is  now  obsolete,  a  great  many 
of  them  were  made,  some  with  reed  organs  built 
into  them  and  others  embodying  all  manner  of 
freak  experiments.  The  range  was  either  58  or 
65  notes  and  special  music  was  therefore  often 
necessary.  The  following  hints  may  be  found 
useful  as  a  condensed  guide  to  the  construction 
of  these  old  instruments : 

Belloivs.  It  will  be  found  usually  that  the  bel- 
lows of  the  oldest  cabinet  players  were  developed 
much  on  the  order  of  the  reed  organ,  particularly 
in  respect  of  having  a  large  equalizing  unit  and 
large  exhausters.  These  bellows  are  essentially 
slow  moving  and  do  not  lend  themselves  to  quick 
changes  of  tension  level.  They  are  covered  with 
the  kind  of  rubber  cloth  used  for  the  reed 
organ,  and  fastened  at  the  bottom  of  the  cabinet 
in  such  a  way  that  to  get  at  them  it  is  necessary 
to  take  out  the  entire  mechanism  from  the  cabinet. 


308  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

In  fact,  it  will  be  found  that  usually  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  get  at  any  parts  save  the  motor  and 
tracker-bar  without  taking  the  whole  thing  from 
its  case;  in  itself  often  a  difficult  and  irritating 
job. 

The  various  parts  which  go  to  make  up  the  bel- 
lows system,  such  as  governors,  gate-boxes  and 
action-cut-off  valves,  are  usually  found  buried  in- 
side the  bellows  on  the  older  cabinet  players,  and 
can  only  be  reached  through  them. 

Pneumatic  Action.  The  valve  system  of  the 
cabinet  player  is  either  of  the  simple  single  valve 
type  described  in  essence  in  the  last  chapter,  or 
of  the  primary-secondary  type  as  described  in  the 
persent  chapter.  There  is  nothing  special  to  be 
said  about  the  make-up  of  such  systems  in  the 
special  case  of  the  cabinet  player,  save  that  the 
valve  boards  are  sometimes  found  glued  together 
in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  any  access  to  the 
pouches. 

Motor.  The  motor  is  of  the  usual  type,  but  of- 
ten has  only  three  units,  which  sometimes  are 
placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  case.  The  spring- 
driven  motor  is  used  in  the  Apollo,  Simplex  and 
Needham  cabinet  players. 

Expression.    The    expression    control    of    the 


Construction  of  Player  Mechanisms.      309 

cabinet  player  varies  according  to  make,  but  the 
most  popular  arrangement  is  as  follows:  one 
tempo  lever,  one  re-wind  lever,  one  sustaining 
pedal  lever  giving  direct  pressure  on  the  pedal 
foot  of  the  piano,  and  one  lever  working  an  ex- 
pression governor  to  switch  the  playing  power 
from  high  to  low  tension  at  will. 

In  later  models  of  cabinet  player,  automatic  ac- 
centuation devices  were  introduced  equivalent  to 
those  which  have  been  adopted  in  similar  players 
of  the  interior  contained  type.  Such  modern 
cabinet  players,  however,  may  be  considered  as 
virtually  equivalent  to  the  present  interior 
mechanisms,  as  they  contain  the  same  devices  and 
are  built  the  same  way. 

These  brief  remarks  will  suffice  for  descrip- 
tion of  a  type  which  has  passed  away  almost  en- 
tirely and  no  longer  need  engage  our  serious  at- 
tention. 


Chapter  Xlll. 

REPAIR   OP    PLAYER    MECHANISM. 

Within  the  meaning  of  the  word  ''repair,"  as 
used  in  this  chapter,  I  understand  to  be  included 
all  matters  pertaining  to  the  regulation  and  main- 
tenance of  players  in  good  order  during  their  ef- 
fective life,  as  well  as  such  direct  reparations  as 
are  made  necessary  by  actual  breakage  or  destruc- 
tion of  parts.  I  do  not  propose  to  attempt  an 
exhaustive  listing  of  all  the  possible  troubles  that 
may  occur,  but  shall  give  here  some  gleanings 
from  my  own  experience  and  from  much  observa- 
tion of  others'  work,  with  the  intention  of  provid- 
ing a  general  guide  which  will  enable  the  learner 
to  find  his  own  way  through  the  most  difficult 
problems. 

In  the  first  place  it  ought  to  be  realized  that 
the  number  of  possible  troubles  that  can  occur  to 
a  player-piano  is  limited.  All  may  be  traced  to 
a  few  broad  causes,  and  when  these  are  known 
and  understood,  any  problem  that  may  arise  can 

310 


Repair  of  Player  Mechanism.  311 

be  reasoned  out.  I  shall  begin  by  discussing  the 
possible  troubles  occurring  to  players  that  re- 
main structurally  and  organically  perfect,  and 
shall  then  say  a  little  about  the  work  of  repairing 
damaged  and  broken  parts  on  older  machines.  In 
short,  the  first  part  of  this  chapter  shall  treat  of 
maintenance,  the  second  of  actual  replacements. 
Leaks.  The  fundamental  cause  of  more  than 
half  the  ills  which  affect  player-pianos  is  leakage. 
It  is  of  course  obvious  that  in  a  machine  like  the 
pneumatic  player  action,  operation  whereof  de- 
pends upon  the  constant  maintenance  of  a  reduced 
pressure  within  the  mechanism,  any  leakage  of  air 
inwards  from  the  outside  must  be  prevented  at  all 
costs.  Yet  it  is  also  plain  that  this  leakage  inwards 
is  inevitable  to  some  extent,  for  the  simple  reason 
that  the  outside  air  presses  upon  the  outer  walls 
of  the  mechanism  everywhere  with  a  definite  pres- 
sure directly  proportional  to  the  reduction  of  pres- 
sure within.  The  higher  the  vacuum  within,  the 
greater  the  pressure  without.  Hence  it  can  easily 
be  seen  that  there  is  everywhere  a  constant  tend- 
ency towards  the  leakage  of  air  inwards  in  all 
places  where  such  leakage  is  conceivably  possible. 
Thus,  for  instance,  we  know  that  when  the  button 
of  the  primary  valve  is  thrown  up,  atmospheric 


312  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

air  flows  in  beneath  the  button  and  into  the  sec- 
ondary channel.  Now,  right  operation  of  the 
mechanism  depends  upon  the  primary  buttons 
seating  upon  their  seats  so  cleanly  that  there  shall 
be  no  leakage  of  air  under  them  until  they  are 
deliberately  raised  by  the  operation  of  the  paper 
roll.  Any  leakage  under  any  of  these  buttons 
means  that  the  corresponding  secondary  valves 
are  operated,  and  then  we  have  what  is  known  as 
** ciphering";  which  means,  pneumatics  speaking 
when  no  perforations  in  the  roll  call  for  them  to 
speak.  That  is  one  illustration  of  the  leakage 
problem. 

It  is  equally  plain  that  through  leakage  the 
pneumatic  sustaining  pedal  devices  operate  when 
the  control  button  is  at  rest.  Leakage  is  respon- 
sible for  the  re-roll  speed  of  a  motor  being  main- 
tained when  driving  forward.  Leakage  is  respon- 
sible (when  a  re-roll  is  pneumatically  handled), 
for  the  mechanism  playing  when  re-rolling 
Leakage  beneath  the  pouches  of  a  tracking  device 
may  be  responsible  for  constant  bad  tracking  of 
rolls.  And  there  are  many  other  possibilities  in 
the  case. 

Precautions  against  leakage.  It  is  therefore 
clear  that  the  maintenance  of  air-tight  conditions 


Repair  of  Player  Mechanism.  313 

is  the  prime  duty  of  the  repairman.     To  this  end 
the  following  general  hints  will  be  found  useful : 

1.  Always  see  that  the  screws  in  valve  boards 
and  other  important  places,  such  as  governor 
boxes,  etc.,  are  well  tightened. 

2.  Do  not  drive  screws  roughly  and  forcibly, 
but  always  turn  them  in  as  far  as  possible  with 
the  fingers,  and  then  finish  with  screw-driver.  Do 
not  force  too  tight.  Overdrawn  screws  are  a  most 
prolific  cause  of  leakage. 

3.  When  it  is  necessary  to  take  off  a  cover  from 
a  box  or  bellows,  or  valve-chest,  be  extremely  care- 
ful to  see  that  the  replacement  is  made  exactly  as 
was  the  detachment.  In  other  words,  mark  the 
top  and  bottom  of  the  box  when  detaching  it  and 
see  that  it  goes  back  the  same  way. 

4.  When  detaching  a  valve  seat,  see  that  it  is 
marked  so  as  to  facilitate  replacing  in  exactly  the 
same  position ;  and  if  it  was  shellaced  or  glued  in 
place,  re-shellac  or  re-glue  it. 

5.  See  that  valves  work  easily  and  are  not  pre- 
vented from  seating  by  grit  or  dirt  lodging  on 
the  seats.  Sticking  or  blocked  secondary  valves 
sometimes  prevent  entirely  the  formation  of  a 
vacuum  in  the  chest,  being  wedged  in  a  half  way 
position  and  allowing  air  to  be  drawn  constantly 


314  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

from  the  outside  into  the  chest  through  their  outer 
seats. 

6.  See  that  all  hose  connections  are  tightly  on 
their  nipples  and  if  such  connections  have  tighten- 
ing bands,  see  that  the  latter  are  tightened  accord- 
ingly. 

Motor  troubles.  The  pneumatic  motor  of  the 
player  mechanism  is  timed  to  run  as  follows : 

2  feet  per  minute  of  paper  to  pass  when  indicator  shows  20 

3  feet  per  minute  of  paper  to  pass  when  indicator  shows  30 

4  feet  per  minute  of  paper  to  pass  wlien  indicator  shows  40 

5  feet  per  minute  of  paper  to  pass  when  indicator  sliows  50 

6  feet  per  minute  of  paper  to  pass  when  indicator  shows  60 

7  feet  per  minute  of  paper  to  pass  when  indicator  sliows  70 

and  so  on  upwards  to  the  130  mark  on  the  tempo 
dial,  where  the  indication  is  for  13  feet  of  paper 
per  minute  to  travel.  These  speeds  are  commonly 
tested  on  a  test-roll  which  is  marked  out  in  feet  and 
half-feet  so  that  the  time  can  be  taken  by  the 
watch. 

Test-roll.  A  test-roll  which  allows  for  the 
separate  sounding  and  repetition  of  each  of  the  88 
pneumatics,  as  well  as  for  timing  motor  speed, 
is  an  essential  element  in  the  kit  of  the  player- 
repairman. 

Motor  Slow.  If  the  motor  runs  at  speed  slower 
than  indicated  above,  the  spring  of  the  motor  gov- 


Repair  of  Player  Mechanism.  315 

ernor  must  be  strengthened  as  explained  in  previ- 
ous chapters. 

Motor  Fast.  If  the  motor  runs  too  fast,  spring 
must  be  weakened. 

Motor  drags.  If  the  motor  drags  on  light  pump- 
ing (does  not  run  fast  enough,  loses  speed),  the 
governor  closes  too  much.  If  the  speed  has  been 
regulated  through  the  governor  spring,  for  normal 
pumping,  the  screw  which  is  placed  to  limit  the 
closing  of  the  governor  or  its  cut-off  must  be  ad- 
justed to  keep  the  governor  further  open. 

Motor  races.  If  the  motor  races  on  hard  pump- 
ing, the  governor  does  not  close  enough.  If  speed 
is  right  on  normal  pumping,  then  adjust  screw  so 
as  to  make  governor  close  a  little  more  on  hard 
pumping. 

Motor  hitches.  If  the  motor  runs  irregularly 
and  in  a  sort  of  gasping  way,  perhaps  losing 
power  rapidly  or  failing  under  hard  work,  as  to- 
wards the  end  of  a  heavy  roll,  this  probably  means 
leakage  under  the  slide-valves  or  incorrect  ad- 
justment of  them.  In  the  first  place,  see  if  the 
slides  sit  flat  on  their  seats.  If  they  do  not,  take 
them  down  and  have  them  trued  up.  Wooden 
slides  can  be  sandpapered  flat.  The  seats  should 
also  be  sandpapered  and  then  burnished  with  pow- 


316  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

dered  graphite  (not  grease,  tallow  or  other  fatty- 
substances,  but  pure  graphite  only).  In  the  sec- 
ond place,  if  the  motor  runs  unevenly,  disconnect 
slides  and  then  carefully  place  each  one  in  its  true 
extreme  position  over  the  ports  in  both  extreme 
positions  alternately,  marking  the  seat  accord- 
ingly. Then  adjust  the  connecting  rods  so  that 
slides  reach  these  positions  correctly. 

Motor  races  all  the  time.  In  this  case  the  re- 
roll  valve  in  the  tempo  box  is  probably  being  kept 
open.  Adjust  it  accordingly.  But  if  a  silencing 
valve  is  used,  look  to  this  and  see  whether  there 
is  anything  holding  it  open  on  the  motor  side ;  as 
for  instance  a  leak,  allowing  air  constantly  to 
flow  under  the  operating  pouch  and  lift  the  valve. 

Action  plays  when  re-rolling.  In  this  case  it 
is  evident  that  action-cut-off  valve  does  not  close 
when  the  re-roll  lever  or  button  is  operated.  In 
cases  where  a  pneumatic  device  is  used  it  is  possi- 
ble that  leakage  under  the  pouch  or  between  the 
operating  button  and  its  seat  may  be  responsible. 
Otherwise,  a  broken  connecting  rod  is  the  most 
obvious  thing  to  seek. 

Action  does  not  play.  Action  cut-off  valve  re- 
mains closed.  Examine  the  manner  of  operation 
and  apply  remedies  as  suggested  above. 


Repair  of  Player  Mechanism.  317 

No  vacuum  in  action.  See  if  secondary  valves 
are  held  off  their  seats  by  dirt  or  verdigris  gather- 
ing on  seats,  or  by  sticking  of  guide  pins;  pro- 
vided, of  course,  that  bellows  system  is  working 
all  right. 

Pouches  too  stiff.  Sometimes  pouches  are  made 
stiff  by  age  or  warping  of  pouch  board,  so  that 
they  hold  valve  stems  off  their  seats  and  prevent 
vacuum  chest  from  becoming  duly  exhausted. 
This  defect  is  sometimes  observed  by  player  fail- 
ing to  gain  vacuum  when  pumped.  Take  off  valve 
board  and  rub  down  pouches  with  fingers.  If  this 
will  not  do,  regulate  valves  to  give  more  play  be- 
tween buttons  and  pouches. 

Player  ''Lacks  power."  Usually  this  defect  is 
manifested  in  a  certain  lack  of  "resistance"  under 
the  feet  and  is  often  to  be  remedied  simply  by 
increasing  the  stiffness  of  the  equalizer  springs. 
If  there  are  two  equalizers  it  is  often  well  to  stif- 
fen only  the  one  which  is  more  heavily  spring- 
expanded.  Sometimes  an  extra  wooden  spring 
outside  the  equalizer  is  the  indicated  remedy. 

Repetition  Bad.  Probably  the  vents  or  "bleed- 
holes"  are  clogged  and  in  this  case  need  simply  to 
be  cleaned,  when  the  trouble  will  disappear.  Ad- 
justable bleed-holes,  as  in  some  players,  may  have 


318  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

been  mal-adjusted  by  some  previous  repairer. 
Lost  motion  between  pnemnatics  and  piano  action 
is  also  to  be  considered  as  a  possible  contributor 
to  this  defect. 

Bepetition  good  hut  power  wea1c.  Bleed-holes 
are  probably  too  large  and  should  be  adjusted  ac- 
cordingly if  player  has  adjustments  for  this  pur- 
pose. But  this  defect  is  very  unlikely  to  be  ob- 
served in  players  with  fixed  bleed-holes. 

Player  plays  hesitatingly.  See  if  primary  valve 
stems  stick  in  their  sockets  or  are  too  tight  in 
them.  This  will  cause  primaries  to  move  slowly 
and  delay  action  of  player.  Similarly,  see  if  sec- 
ondary valves  move  slowly  through  stickiness  of 
pins  or  other  similar  causes. 

Travel  of  Valves.  In  almost  all  cases  it  may 
be  safely  set  down  that  primary  valves  need  not 
and  should  not  rise  more  than  ^4''.  Secondary 
valves  need  about  Vs'  travel  in  most  cases. 

Pneumatic  ciphers.  See  above  on  Leaks.  Ci- 
phering is  due  to  the  valves  operating  independ- 
ently of  the  paper,  so  that  a  pneumatic  collapses  as 
soon  as  pumping  starts.  Look  for  leaks  in  the 
tracker-tube,  or  dirt  setting  on  valve  seats,  or  leaks 
from  channel  to  channel  in  valve  boards  or  con- 
nections. 


Repair  of  Player  Mechanism.  319 

Pneumatic  silent.  If  a  speaking  pneumatic 
does  not  collapse  when  it  should,  listen  for  a 
hissing  sound.  This  would  indicate  a  torn  pneu- 
matic. Otherwise  see  if  tracker-tube  or  channels 
are  clogged  or  valves  held  shut  by  dirt. 

Dampers  always  off.  Sometimes  (see  above, 
*' leaks")  air  gets  in  under  the  sustaining  device 
control  button  and  keeps  sustaining  pedal  pneu- 
matic partly  collapsed.  Other  similar  defects 
may  cause  this  pneumatic  to  remain  collapsed. 

Dampers  do  not  rise  on  low  vacuum.  All  pneu- 
matic sustaining  devices  have  the  vice  of  requir- 
ing considerable  power  to  work  them.  If  they 
work  well  on  lower  power,  then  this  means  that 
bleed-hole  and  rise  of  valve  are  cut  down  so  much 
that,  although  the  pedaling  is  not  affected,  the 
operation  of  the  pneumatic  is  slow.  Vice-versa, 
if  the  pneumatic  closes  sharply,  it  makes  a  lot 
of  noise  and  takes  up  much  power.  A  happy  me- 
dium is  the  only  aim  possible. 

Soft  expression.  The  expression  governor  can 
be  regulated  to  determine  what  degree  of  power 
shall  be  available  when  the  soft  expression  is  in 
action.  The  stiffer  the  spring  is  made,  the  louder 
will  the  player  play  on  soft  expression;  and  vice 
versa. 


320  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

In  players  whicli  have  divided  soft  expression, 
one  half  of  the  vacuum  chest  is  affected  by  each 
governor.  The  action-cut-off  valve  is  then  also 
divided;  one  valve  being  required  in  each  expres- 
sion box.  This  should  be  remembered  in  deal- 
ing with  such  players. 

Regulation  in  general.  Of  course,  it  would  be 
possible  to  go  on  indefinitely  setting  forth  direc- 
tions for  remedying  possible  troubles;  but  the 
foregoing  covers  the  really  essential  points  and 
the  student  should  be  able  by  careful  study  of 
the  previous  chapters  to  reason  out  for  himself 
any  futher  problems  of  the  same  sort.  It  is 
mainly  to  be  remembered  that  the  player  mech- 
anism is  to  be  considered  well  regulated  when  it 
plays  well.  If  its  playing  is  satisfactory  to  the 
user  and  to  the  tuner  who  cares  for  it  there  is 
leally  no  more  to  be  said.  Certain  things  are 
requisite  to  the  proper  working  of  the  player 
mechanism  and  these  have  been  set  forth  above. 

Patches  and  replacements.  The  actual  replace- 
ment of  parts  which  have  become  worn  out  is  not 
often  necessary  but  in  old  cabinet  players  and 
even  on  the  older  65-note  player-pianos  still  in 
use  one  sometimes  finds  it  necessary  to  re-clothe 
bellows  units,  re-pouch  valves  and  so  on. 


Repair  of  Player  Mechanism.  321 

Stopping  Leaks  in  Boards.  When  cracks  ap- 
pear in  valve  boards  it  is  best  to  fill  them  in  with 
shellac.  In  fact,  any  places,  where  any  possi- 
bility exists  of  leaking  joints  or  porous  wood,  may 
always  advantageously  be  treated  in  this  way.  If 
cracks  are  really  wide,  it  may  be  better  to  fill  in 
with  soft  wood  glued  in  place,  and  then  cover  with 
a  thin  patch  of  pneumatic  cloth  on  both  sides, 
afterwards  shellacing  over  the  patch.  This  will 
make  a  perfect  air-tight  patch. 

Cracked  Pneumatics.  The  cloth  sides  of  pneu- 
matics, especially  those  of  the  motor,  wear  out  in 
time  at  the  hinges.  In  this  case,  it  is  necessary 
either  to  cement  a  small  patch  over  the  cracked 
place  or — if  the  crack  is  wide — perhaps  to  re- 
clothe  the  pneumatic.  Especially  is  this  often 
necessary  on  old  motors.  The  procedure  in  this 
case  is  as  follows :  Carefully  cut  ofiF  the  old  cloth 
very  close  to  the  edges  of  the  wooden  walls,  so  that 
when  cut  off  the  entire  cloth  can  be  laid  out  on 
a  table  in  one  piece  forming  a  pattern  for  the  new 
cloth.  The  narrow  edge  of  the  cloth  where  it  was 
glued  on  to  the  walls  cannot  always  be  removed 
readily,  but  in  that  case  simply  cut  as  closely  to 
the  edges  as  possible.  Then  lay  the  old  piece 
down  on  a  new  piece  of  cloth,  allowing  enough  ex- 


322  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

tra  width  to  take  care  of  the  thin  edge  which  is 
to  be  glued  on  the  boards  or  walls  of  the  pneu- 
matic. Take  a  file  and  smooth  off  the  edges  of 
the  pneumatic  boards  or  walls,  so  as  to  get  otf  all 
the  old  cloth  that  will  come  off.  Then  get  good 
hot  glue,  spread  it  over  the  edges  of  one  board  and 
apply  the  cloth,  smoothing  it  well  down  with  the 
hand  and  ironing  it  finally  with  a  small  iron  rea- 
sonably hot.  Then  do  the  same  on  the  other  wall 
of  the  pneumatic,  allowing  a  little  time  for  the 
first  to  dry.  Be  careful  to  see  that  the  dimen- 
sions are  preserved,  especially  as  to  width  of  open- 
ing when  the  cloth  is  glued  on.  For  speaking 
pneumatics,  a  mercerized  rubber-coated  cotton  is 
often  used,  gauging  (L.  J.  Mutty  Co.  figures) 
0045"  to  .0075'^  For  motors  the  same  firm  manu- 
factures a  rubber  cloth,  either  double  or  single 
texture,  gauging  .008''  to  .015". 

Bellows  Repairs.  The  corners  of  the  exhaust 
units  sometimes  show  signs  of  wear  but  the  tough- 
ness of  the  cloths  used  and  the  comparatively  slow 
movement  of  the  units  in  operation  permit  effec- 
tual patching  without  any  necessity  for  entire  re- 
covering. Patches  should  be  of  the  same  material 
as  the  original  cloth  and  should  be  glued  on  with 
hot  glue  if  the  cloth  is  a  jean  or  a  twill ;  and  with 


Repair  of  Player  Mechanism.  323 

rubber  cement  if  tbe  old-fashioned  rubber  bel- 
lows cloth  is  the  material. 

Bellows  flap-valves  sometimes  become  leaky 
through  porosity  of  the  cloth.  They  can  be  cov- 
ered with  a  strip  of  bellows-twill,  or  simply  re- 
placed. 

Double  texture  jeans  and  heavy  twills  are  used 
for  covering  bellows  to-day.  The  old  rubber  cloth 
is  virtually  obsolete. 

Pouches.  To  replace  broken  or  cracked 
pouches,  take  off  the  old  leather  as  carefully  as 
possible  and  cut  a  new  piece  of  the  same  size. 
Scrape  glue-surface  clean,  put  on  hot  glue  and 
press  down  with  a  wooden  block  cut  to  fit  the 
orifice.  Kid  is  often  used  for  pouch-leather  on 
modern  players,  but  on  old  ones  sheepskin  was 
sometimes  used.  The  use  of  this  latter  should  be 
avoided  as  it  tends  to  crumble.  In  my  opinion,  a 
rubber-coated  silk  cloth  is  the  best,  and  such  cloth 
should  gauge  (see  L.  J.  Mutty  measurements) 
from  .003  to  .004  inch. 

Squeaky  Springs.  Treat  coiled  springs  with 
vaseline.  If  fan  springs  squeak  see  where  the 
rust  is  in  them  and  clean  it  out. 

Squeaky  Slides.  Squeaky  slide-valves  in  tempo 
boxes  and  elsewhere  should  be  treated  by  smooth- 


324  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

ing  off  their  seats  and  contact  surfaces  and  rub- 
bing on  powdered  graphite  from  a  soft,  heavy 
lead  pencil.    Never  use  grease  in  any  form. 

Overdrawn  screws.  Screws  should  always  be 
countersunk  and  provided  with  metal  washers 
when  used  to  secure  valve  boards  and  other  places 
where  air-tightness  is  desired.  Do  not  turn  over- 
drawn screws,  but  withdraw  them,  plug  their  holes 
and  re-insert.  Overdrawn  screws  always  mean 
leaks. 

Leaky  Tubes.  Old  rubber  tubing  is  sometimes 
found  crumbled  and  leaky.  Do  not  bother  about 
it,  but  simply  replace  it  with  new  lengths.  Old 
hose  connections  often  leak  also  and  it  is  better 
to  replace  them.  Metal  hose  pipe  connections 
should  be  well  screwed  down  and  if  necessary 
seated  on  a  coat  of  shellac. 

Metal  tubing  does  not  often  crack  or  otherwise 
suffer  leakage  troubles,  but  occasionally  a  jar  or 
shock  will  crack  such  a  tube  at  a  joint.  The  best 
remedy  is  to  cut  out  the  affected  part  and  join 
up  with  a  piece  of  rubber  tube;  or  else  use  the 
soldering  iron. 

Old  Player-Pianos.  Player-pianos  made  in  the 
G5-note  days  were  usually  built  with  a  child-like 
confidence  in  their  infallibility;  or  at  least  one 


Repair  of  Player  Mechanism.  325 

would  so  imagine.  Their  builders  do  not  seem 
to  have  considered  that  there  would  ever  be  any 
special  need  to  take  them  apart,  and  in  fact  may 
perhaps  have  thought  that  they  would  be  better 
untouched ;  for  certainly  to  disentangle  them  from 
the  piano  is  always  a  formidable  and  often  a  hope- 
less task.  The  repairman  may  observe  that 
many  of  these  old  pianos  are  built  with  the  entire 
pneumatic  stack,  in  addition  to  the  bellows-sys- 
tem, under  the  key-bed,  while  the  spool-box  re- 
mains above.  Naturally,  it  is  not  easy  to  get  such 
a  mechanism  out  of  the  piano  and  in  many  cases 
it  is  necessary  to  take  out  the  key-bed,  which  in 
fact  is  usually  arranged  accordingly.  In  one  case 
(old  Cecilian  65-note)  the  key-bed  carrying  the 
pneumatic  action,  the  keys,  the  piano  action  and 
the  spool-box,  can  be  separated  from  the  back  of 
the  piano. 

Leakage,  slowness  of  motor,  hard  pumping  and 
general  debility  are  to  be  expected  in  these  player- 
pianos,  for  they  were  built  at  a  time  when  the 
whole  industry  was  in  an  experimental  state  and 
when  the  general  level  of  scientific  knowledge, 
never  high,  was  even  lower  than  it  is  now  in  the 
factories.  Hence,  as  can  easily  be  understood,  all 
kinds  of  impossible  constructions  were  made  the 


326  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

subject  of  experiment  and  the  repairman  is  oft- 
times  called  on  to  use  liis  skill  on  specimens  of 
this  sort. 

In  any  case  it  may  be  said  that  the  principles 
already  briefly  laid  down  in  this  book  (and  more 
completely  in  my  *' Player-Piano  Up  To  Date") 
apply  to  the  old  as  well  as  to  the  new,  nor  has  there 
been  any  radical  alteration  in  essential  methods. 
Principles,  of  course,  are  exactly  the  same  to-day 
as  they  were  twenty  years  ago ;  refinement  in  de- 
tail has  been  accomplished  but  scarcely  anything 
more. 

Cabinet  Players'  Individualities  and  Peculiarly 
ties.  Similar  observations  apply  to  the  older  cab- 
inet players,  with  certain  additions.  The  older 
cabinet  Angelus  and  Apollo  were  made  with  a  58- 
note  range.  The  Angelus  music  rolled  the  reverse 
way.  Apollo  rolls  were  made  without  pins, 
whereas  all  other  contemporary  58-  and  65-note 
rolls  had  pinned  flanges.  Cecilian  music  was 
made  with  a  long  tracker  bar  provided  with  extra 
size  perforations  at  the  bass  end.  Such  players 
had  to  have  two  tracker  bars.  Some  Apollo 
players  were  built  in  a  form  known  as  *' Apollo 
Grand,"  having  an  octave  coupler  which  throws 


Repair  of  Player  Mechanism.  327 

in  an  extra  octave  of  pneumatics  at  bass  and  treble 
extremities. 

In  general  it  should  be  remembered  that  the 
cabinet  players,  even  more  than  the  old  65-note 
player  pianos,  were  experimental.  They  there- 
fore are  found  in  vast  variety  of  constructional 
detail,  but  it  may  always  safely  be  assumed  that 
their  peculiarities  are  due  rather  to  imperfect 
grasp  of  fundamentals  on  the  part  of  their  makers 
than  to  any  excellences  now  unavailable  or  un- 
used. 

These  brief  hints  and  suggestions  are  given  with 
the  idea  of  suggesting  methods  rather  than  at- 
tempting to  convey  a  definite  answer  to  each  pos- 
sible definite  problem.  The  latter  task  would  be 
endless. 

In  conclusion  let  me  give  a  short  list  of  ma- 
terials and  tools  that  the  player  repairer  should 
always  carry  with  him. 

Test  Eoll 

Vacuum  pump  for  tracker  bar 

.Rubber  tubing  for  tracker  tubes 

Hose  (2  sizes)  for  main  connections 

Shellac  in  liquid  form  with  bottle  and  brush 

Glue  (not  fish  glue) 


328  Modern  Piano  Tuning. 

Rubber  cement 
Kid  (leather)  for  pouches 
Eubber  covered  silk  cloth  for  pouches 
Rubber  coated  cotton  cloth  for  pneumatics 
Rubber  cloth  for  pneumatics  of  motors 
Special  bellows  cloth  for  bellows  repairs 
Raw-hide  washers  and  strips  for  bearings  of 
pedals,  bellows,  connections,  etc. 

Miscellaneous  threaded  wires  and  buttons 
Leather  buttons 

Miscellaneous  valve  buttons  and  stems,  valve 
seats,  etc. 

Other  materials  and  tools  will  suggest  them- 
selves to  the  repairman  as  his  needs  and  his  expe- 
rience alike  grow. 

A  Last  Word :  It  is  not  true  that  a  good  work- 
man never  quarrels  with  his  tools ;  though  perhaps 
a  bad  workman  always  does.  A  good  workman 
never  quarrels  with  good  tools;  and  always  with 
bad  ones.  Carlyle  said,  *  *  Genius  is  nothing  but  an 
infinite  capacity  for  taking  pains."  With  these 
significant  words  I  may  fitly  bring  this  book  to 
an  end. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE. 

The  Bibliography  of  the  piano  and  of  acoustics  is  ex- 
tensive, but  in  the  following  list  I  have  tried  only  to 
give  the  names  and  particulars  of  a  few  modem  books 
useful  to  the  student  and  easily  accessible: 

A(X)USTICS 

Sensations  of  Tone,  by  H.  L.  F.  Helmholtz,  translated 
with  additions,  and  revised,  by  A.  J.  Ellis,  F.  R.  S., 
London,  Longmans  Greene  &  Co.,  3rd  edition,  1895. 

Sound  and  Music,  by  Rev.  J.  A.  Zahm,  Chicago,  A.  C. 
MeClurg  Co.,  1892. 

On  Sound,  by  John  Tyndall,  F.  R.  S.  3rd  edition,  Lon- 
don, 1875,  and  in  various  editions  since.  Pub- 
lished in  International  Science  Library  by  the  Wer- 
ner Co. 

The  Science  of  Musical  Sounds,  by  D.  C.  Miller,  D.Sc, 
New  York,  Macmillan  Co.,  1916. 

THE  PIANO:   HISTORICAL 

History  of  the  American  Pianoforte,  by  Daniel  Spil- 
lane.  New  York,  1892. 

History  of  the  Pianoforte,  by  Edgar  Brinsmead,  Lon- 
don, 1879. 

329 


330  Bibliographical  Note. 

Article,  Pianoforte,  by  A.  J.  Hipkins,  in  Grove's  Dic- 
tionary of  Music  and  Musicians,  London  and  New 
York,  The  MacMillan  Co.,  1910. 

Article,  Pianoforte,  by  A.  J.  Hipkins,  Encyclopaedia 
Brittanica,  9th  and  11th  editions. 

Pianos  and  Their  ]\Iakers,  by  Alfred  Dolge,  Covina  Pub- 
lishing Co.,  Covina,  Cal.,  U.  S.  A.,  1912. 

THE  PIANO:   TECHNICAL 

Theory  and  Practice  of  Pianoforte  Building,  by  William 
Braid  White,  New  York,  Edward  Lyman  Bill  Inc., 
1906. 

THE  PUNO-PLATER:   TECHNICAL 

The  Player-Piano  Up-To-Date ;  by  William  Braid  White, 
New  York,  Edward  Lyman  Bill  Inc.,  1914. 


THE  END 


Index. 


Accuracy,  practical,  110 

importance  of,  111 
Acoustics,  meaning  of,  1 
Action  of  piano,  138,  184 

centers,  196 

center-pins,  196 

detail  variations,  198 

felts,  197 

functions,   185 

general  construction,   195 

non-blockable,    of    Ammon, 
216 

springs,  197 

turning-points,   194 

woods  used  in,  196 

English  action,  anticipated 
by  Cristofori,  191 
of  grand  piano,   186 

compared  with   square  ac- 
tion, 191 

illustrated,   188 

operation,    187 

order  of  regulating,  204 

regulation,  200 

remedies  for  defects,  254 
of  upright  piano,  209 

compared       with       grand, 
214 

distinctive  features,  210 

detail  variations,  215 

lost    motion    attachments, 
216 


Action — con  tinued 
metal  rails,  216 
materials,  217 
operation,    211 
regulation,  218 
remedies  for  defects,  253 
of  player,  284 

bottom  action,  285 
no  vacuum  in,  317 
plays  hesitatingly,  318 
top  action,  298 
(See   also   Back-check,   Dam- 
per,      Key,       Pneumatic 
Valve   and    other    names 
of    parts. ) 
"After-touch,"  207 
Agraffe,  176 

Air,  compression  in  soimdwave, 
10 
disturbance  of  balance,  269 
expansion,  266 
a  gas,  266 
pressure,  265,  282 
rarefaction  in  sound-wave,  10 
■weight,  265,  282 
Air-pump,  11 
Amplification  by  sound  board, 

168 
Amplitude  of  vibrations,  12 
Angelus  player,  290,  326 
Apollo  player,  302,  303 

cabinet,  307,  326 
Arezzo,     Guido     d',    mediaeval 
musician,  19  footnote 


331 


332 


Index. 


Atmosphere  necessary  to  sound, 

11 
Audibility,  range  of,  16 
"Automatic  player,"  305 
Auto-pneumatic      Action      Co., 

their    player,    287,    290, 

291,  304 

B. 

Bach,  J.  S.,  composer,  20 
Back  of  piano,  133,  134,  173 
Back-check     on     grand     piano, 
191 
regulation  of,  206 
on  upright,  219 
Bass  strings,  180 
winding  for,   180 
tuning,   126 
defects  of,  250 
Battallia,  L.,  piano  maker,  216 
Bauer,  Wm.,  piano  maker,  173 
Bearing  of  strings,  116 
"Bearings"  in  tuning,  92,  108 
Beats  in   simultaneous  sounds, 
60,  67 
counting,  105 
false,  125 
frequency  of,  67 
how  arising,  67 
in   equal  tempered   intervals, 

86 
use  of,  69 
Beat-rate,  increase  in,  90' 

in  Thirds  and  Sixths,  104 
Beat- system,  84 
Beat-tones,  97  footnote 
Bellows  of  player,  264 
cloth  for,  322 
functions  of,  264 


Bellows — continued 

exhauster  units,  269,  286 

equalizer,  269,  286 

flap-valves  of,  271 

operation  of  equalizers,  274 

of  exhausters,  270 

repairs  on,  322 

springs  of,  286 

varied  types  of,  276 
Bellows-system,  286 
Bleed-hole,  see  Vent 
Boys,  experiment  with  five,  80 
Brambach     Piano     Co.,     their 

grand  piano,  177 
Bridge  on  sound-board,  118,  176 

cutting  of,   177 

defects  in,  251 
Bridle   tape    of    upright    piano 
action,  214,  219,  253 


c. 

Cable  Company,  their  player, 
290,  297,  303 

Case-work  of  upright  piano, 
described,  141 

Cecilian  player,  old  65-note 
style,  325,  326 

Center-pins  of  piano  action,  196 
material  of,  197 

Chase,  A.  B.  Co.,  their  player, 
290 

Christman  Piano  Co.,  piano  ac- 
tion, 216 

"Ciphering"  in  player,  312 

"Circle  of  Fifths"  in  tuning,  91 
and  of  Fourths,  91 

Clark,  M.,  player  inventor,  eee 
Aj>oUo 


Index. 


333 


Clavichord,  stringed  instrument, 
keyboard  of,  73  footnote 

Comma,  interval,  33 

Condensation  of  sound-pulse,  61 

Conover    Bros.,    piano    makers, 
216 

"Crash-bellows"  in   player,   287 

Cristofori,  B.,  inventor  of  piano, 
150 
his  back-check,  192 
his  hammer,  223 

Curve  of  sines,  7 


D. 


Damper,  of  grand  piano,  194 

regtilation  of,  208 

of  upright  piano,  220 
"Delicacy  of  ear"  defined,  128 
DiflFerence  of  one  vibration,  65 

E. 

Ellis,  A,  J.,  F.R.S.,  translator 

of     Helmholtz,     35,     82 

footnote,  94 
history  of  musical  pitch,  19 
"Electric  player,"  see  Automatic 

Player 
Equalizer  in  players,  274 

operation  of,  275 
Erard,  P.  S.,  piano  maker,  184, 

186 
Erard  piano,  195 
Errors,    accumulation    of,    112, 

127 
Expression  in  player-pianos,  264 
Expression  governor  in  player, 

290 
description  of,  291 


Expression  governor — continued 
operation  of,  293 
regulation  of,  319 


F. 


Faber,  N.,  organ  maker,  73  foot- 
note 
Felt  for  piano  hammers,  226 

nature  of,  227 

See  also  Hammer-Felt 
Fifth,  musical  interval,  21 

ratio  of,  22 
Fourier,  J.   B.,  mathematician, 
52,  footnote 

his  theories,  52 
Frequency  of  vibration,  15 


G. 


Galton,  Sir  F.,  anthropometrist, 
18,  footnote 

Galton  whistle,  18,  footnote 

Gate-box,  see  Tempo-box. 

Goetschius,  Dr.  Percy,  musical 
theorist,  24,   footnote 

Graphite,  use  of,  314 

Grove's  Dictionary,  musical  en- 
cyclopaedia, 84 

Gulbransen,  A.  G.,  player  in- 
ventor, his  player,  290, 
299,  302,  303 

H. 

Hagaman,     Dr.,     inventor,     94, 

footnote 
Hammer  of  piano,  137 

contact  with  string,  55 

description  of,  224 


334 


Index. 


Hammer — continued 

development  of,  in  U.  S.  A., 

226 
felt  for,  227 
"filing"  of,  234 
functions,  224 
light  vs.  heavy,  232 
material  for,  225 

tonal  properties  of,  228 
voicing  of,  see  Voicing 
Hammer-blow  on  upright  piano, 

218 
"Hammer-felt"  of  piano,  226 
under-felt,  230 
top-felt,  230 
soft  and  hard,  231 
condition  prior  to  voicing,  233 
(See  also  Hammer  and  Felt.) 
"Hammer-rail-lift"     on     player 
pianos,  295 
floating  type,  296 
Harpsichord,  ancestor  of  piano, 
223 
nature  of  its  tone,  223 
Helmholtz,   H.   L.   F.,   Acousti- 
cian, 17  footnote,  19,  35, 
82  footnotes,  94,  97,  foot- 
note 
Hipkins,  A.  J.,  musical  techni- 
cian, 73,  151,  footnotes 
"History      of      the      American 
Pianoforte,"       historical 
work,  187  footnote,  329 
Hydraulikon,     ancient     instru- 
ment, 73,  footnote 


Impulses,  composition  of,  164 
Interference  of  eoimd,  67 


Intervals  of  musical  scale,  ad- 
vice   to    tune    pure,    96, 
122 
used  for  tests,  126 
wide    and    narrow    in    equal 
temperament,  89 
Intonation  in  music,  impracti- 
cability of  pure,  31 
Just  intonation,  94 
Intonations,  comparison  of,   79 

study  of,  93 
Ivory,  polishing  of,  257 
repair  of,  257 


Jack  of  grand  piano  action,  206 
of  upright  piano  action,  219 


Key  of  piano  action,  of  grand 
piano,  202 
regulation  in  grand,  204 
of  upright  piano,  218 
remedies  for  defects  in,  254 
Key-board,  influence  of,  73 
Key-pliers,  use  of,  204 
Kimball,     W.     W.     Co.,     piano 
makers,  their  player,  301 
Koenig,  Dr.  R.,  Acoustician,  18, 

97,  footnote 
Kranich  &  Bach,  piano  makers, 
their  soft  pedal,  200 


Leakage    in    pneumatic    player 
action,   311 
results  of,  312 
precautions  against,  313 


Index. 


335 


Leakage — continued 

in  valve  boards,  321 
Lecky,    Jas.,    musical    theorist, 

84,  footnote 
Left  hand  in  tuning,  121 
for  grand  pianos,  122 
Lost  motion   in   upright  piano 
action,  219 

M. 

Materials  for  player  repairing, 
327 
(See  also  under  Felt,  Piano, 
Player,  etc.) 
Mayer,  Prof.  A.  M.,  Acoustician, 

61 
Method,  note  on,  92 
Metronome  for  coimting  beats, 

107,  footnote 
Miller,   J.   C,   Acoustician  and 
Tuner,  researches  of,  69 
his  tables,   88 
Monochord,  analogy  of,  159 
Motion,  harmonic,  49 

resultant,  49 
Motor  of  player,  276 
adjusting  speed  of,  314 
adjusting  valves  of,  315 
cloth  for,  322 
old,  reclothing,  321 
operation  of,  276 
parts  of,  276 
speed  of,  314 
transmission  of,  301 
troubles  of,  314 
various  types  of,  301 
Motor   governor   of   player   ac- 
tion, 278 
adjustment  of,  289 


Motor  governor — continued 
description  of,  288 
operation  of,  280 

Muffler  of  piano,  141 

Mutty,  L.  J.  Co.,  player  supply 
makers,  their  cloth 
gages,  322,  323 

Music  Trade  Review,  piano 
trade  journal,  88 

Music  Trades  Review,  London, 
piano   trade  journal,   88 

Musical  instruments,  their  im- 
perfect tuning,  33 

Mute,  125 

Muting  of  strings,  123 


N. 


Needham  cabinet  player,  308 

Nodes,  in  string  vibration,  48, 
65 

Noises,  3,  4 

Notation,  acoustical,  29,  foot- 
note 

0. 

Octave,  musical  interval,  21 
in  equal  temperament,  76 
tuning  of,  98 
Organ,   intonation  of   in   equal 

temperament,  81 
Oscillation     or     semi-vibration, 

15 
Overstringing  in  bass  of  piano, 
132 


Partials  in  string  vibration,  up- 
per, 16 


336 


Index. 


Partials — continued 
influence  of,  54 
coincident,  67 
series  from  C,  =  64,  53 
series  of,  54 
Patches,    in    player    repairing, 

320 
Pedals  of  piano,  139 
sustaining,  140 
"loud,"  140 
soft,  140 
sostenuto,  140,  200 

regulation  of,  209 
soft  of  grand,  199 
Kranich  &  Bach  soft,  200 
of  upright  piano,  217 
of  upright  soft,  217 
of  upright  damper,  217 
of  upright  middle,  217 
regulation  of   damper   pedal, 
220 
of  soft  pedal,  220 
of  middle  pedal,  220 
of  player  piano,  270 
Penduliun    for    counting   beats, 
106 
experiment  with,   164 
Pendulum-clock,  106 
Perforated  sheet  or  music  roll, 

265,  273 
Perforations,       marginal,       in 

sheet,  303 
Phase,  in  Acoustic  phenomena, 
identity  of,  64 
difference  of,  64 
Piano  or   pianoforte,  as  acous- 
tical     instrument,       38, 
footnote 
action  of,  see  Action 
case-work  on  upright,  141 


Piano — continued 

development  of,   150 

finish  of,  149 

grand,  illustrated,  147 

highest  sound  of,  17 

illustrations  of,  143,  144,  146, 
147 

iron  plate  of,  133 
defects  of,  250 

keys  of,  see  Keys 

lowest  sound  of,  16 

materials  of,  148 

a  percussion  instrument,  131 

polish  of,  149 

range  of  modern,  18 

strings  of,  see  Strings 

soundboard  of,  see  Sound- 
board 

in  theatres,   125 

tone  of,  see  Tone 

tone-emission,  apparatus  of, 
(see  Tone  Emission  Ap- 
paratus ) 

upright,  names  of  parts,  141, 
142,  143,  144,  145,  146 

varnish  of,  149 

wire  of,  see  Wire 

wrest  plank  of,  117,  133 

square,  see  Square 
"Pianoforte,"   article   in   Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica,  187 
Pin-block   of   piano,   see  Piano, 

Wrest  plank  of 
Pipes,  musical,  vibration  of,  54 
Pitch  of  sound,  14 

lowering  of,  124 

raising  of,  124 

imiform,  125 
Player-piano,  284 

description  of,  285 


Index. 


337 


Player — continued 

lacks  power,  317 

maintenance  of,  311 

old,  324 

repair  of  old,  324 
Player,  cabinet  or  exterior,  284, 
307 

action  of,  308 

bellows  of,  307 

expression  in,  308 

motor  of,  308 

repair  of,  326 
Player-Piano  Up  to  date,  book, 

326 
"Pneumatic,"     power     unit     of 
player  mechanism,  270 

ciphering,  318 

cloth  for,  322 

collapse  of,  273 

cracks  in,  321 

repetition  of,  274,  317 

silent,  319 
"Pneumatics"  science,  201 

need  of  instruction  in,  262 

summary  of  facts  in,  282 
Pneumatic   playing   mechanism 
of  player-piano 

functions  of,  264 

operation  of,  269 

regulation  of,  320 

repair  of,  310 
Pneumatic    power,    source    of, 

265 
Pneumatic     stack     of     player 
mechanisms,   298 

assembly  of,  299 
Polishing,  149,  256 
Position  in  tuning,  123 
Pouches   of  player  mechanism, 
323 


Pouches — continued 
leather  for,  323 
repairing  of,  323 
"Pounding"  in  tuning,  123 
Practice  by  student  in  tuning, 

100 
Pressure  of  atmosphere,  265 
effective,  for  player,  282 
on  valve,  272,  274 
Price  &  Teeple  Piano  Co.,  their 

player,  290 
Purity  in  timing,  measure  of, 

97 
Pythagoras,  Greek  physicist,  20 

R. 

Range  of  musical  sounds,  18 
Ratio,  chromatic,  33 
(also  see  Interval) 
Reduced    pressure    chamber    of 

player  mechanism,  272 
Refinishing  of  case-work,  256 
Reflection  of  vibratory  motion, 

49 
Reisig,  Aug.,  Acoustician,   107, 

footnote 
Repetition  of  piano  action,  184 
double,  184 
of  player  action,  317 
adjustment  of,  in  player,  317 
Replacement  of  parts  on  player 

piano,  320 
Re-roll  in  player  piano,  297 
Reservoir  of  player,  see  Equal- 
izer 
Resonance  of  sound,  66 
in  piano,  161 
sympathetic,  40 
Re-wind,  see  Re-roll 


338 


Index. 


s. 


Saw,  noise  of,  7 
Scale,  in  music,  20 

chromatic  tempered,  19 

diatonic,  20,  22,  24 

equal  tempered,  75 

equal  tempered  on  piano,  76 

minor,  79,  footnote 

natural,  22 

relations  of  degrees  of,  25 
"Scale"  in  piano  making,  131 
Schwander     piano    action,    for 
grand,  198 

for  upright,  216 
Screws,  overdrawn,  324 
Semitone,  chromatic,  32 
"Sensations  of  Tone,"  book,  17, 

97,  footnotos 
Shellac,  use  of,  313 

for  leaks,  321 
Silencer  in  player-piano,  297 
Simplex  cabinet  player,  308 
"Sixty-five  note"  players,  306 
Slide  valve  in  player,  squeaky, 

323 
Soft  expression  { see  Expression- 
governor) 
Soft-pedal,  pneumatic,  in  play- 
er-piano, 295 
Sound,  science  of,  4 

as  sensation,  4 

loudness  of,  12 

mechanics  of,  5 

musical,   9 

pitch  of,  14 

quality  of,  54 

transmission  of,  9 

vibration  of,  9 

"what  is  sound,"  2 


Sounds,  extremes  of  musical,  16 
highest  on  piano,  17 
lowest  on  piano,  16 
lowest  audible,  16 
musical,  3 

properties  of  musical,  11 
Sound-board  of  piano,  134 
bridges  of,  136,  176 
character  of,  152 
crown  of,  135 
defects  of,  251 
dimensions  of,  174 
influence  of  back  on,  170,  173 
influence    of    plate    on,    170, 

171 
as       resonance      instrument, 

161 
use  of,  135 
ribbing  of,  175 
tone  coloration  by,  168 
vibration,  period  of,  170 
proper  of,   169 
of,  shown,  157 
as  vibrator,  135,  160 
with   strings,    one   structure, 
153 
Spillane,  D.,  musical  historian, 

187 
Spool-box  in  player-piano,  302, 
Springs  in  piano  action,  198 
in    player    action,    treatment 
of,  323 
Square  style  of  piano,  244 
is  obsolete,  244 
old  English  action  of,  259 
repairs  on,  257 
Staib-Abendschein      Co.,      New 
York,  their  Mastertouch 
piano  action,  216 
Standard      Pneumatic      Action 


Index. 


339 


Co.,     New    York,     their 
player,  287 
Steinway   &    Sons,   New   York, 
piano  makers,  198 

their  grand  action,   198 
Strauch    Brothers,    New    York, 
piano  action  makers,  199 

their  grand  piano  action,  199 
"Striking  distance"  of  hammer, 

56,  179 
String,  musical,  36 

definition  of,  36 

division   of,   42 

experiment  on,  46 

length  of,  43 

pitch  of,  43 

thickness  of,  43 

tension  of,  43 

variable  factors  in,  45 

vibration,    simultaneous,    of, 
59 

weight  of,  43 

why  it  subdivides,  45 
Strings,  of  piano,  bass,  132 

defects  of  remedied,  249 

description  of,   116 

dimensions  of,  178 

false,  249 

functions  of,  177 

gauges  of,  178 

hang  on  bridge,  122 

material  of,  57 

proportions  of,   132 

striking  point  of,  179 

struck,  156 

tension  of,  58,  133 

tones  of,  38 

winding  of,  in  bass,  180 
String  polisher,  tool,  249 
"Style"  in  tuning,  127 


Sustaining  pedal,  pneumatic,  in 
player,  294 
troubles  of,  319 


Technicians,  conference  of,  182, 

footnote 
Temperament  in  tuning,  mean- 
ing of,  74 
necessity  for,  34 
use  of  word,  73 
Temperament,  equal,  system  of 
tuning,  70,  74 
advantages  of,  80 
a  compromise,  95 
definition  of,  75 
disadvantages  of,  80 
octave  rates,  75 
semitone  ratio,  75 
Temperament,    meantone,     sya- 

tem  of  tuning,  82 
Tempo  or  speed,  in  player  piano, 
280 
control  of,  280 
valve  for,  281 
Tension  of  piano  strings,  58 
Tests  in  tuning,  method  of.  111 
of  octave,  102 
by  thirds  and  sixths,  103 
by  tenths,  104 
Test-roll   for   player-piano,   314 
"Theory  and  Practice  of  Piano- 
forte Building,"  Book,  re- 
ferred to  or  mentioned  in 
footnotes,  35,  45,  82,  130, 
134,   135,   171,    175,   178, 
183,  187 
Tliompson,     General     Perronet, 
musical      theorist,      82, 
footnote 


340 


Index. 


Time,  unit  of,  15 
Tone,  quality  of  musical  sounds, 
acoustical    definition    for 
piano,   155 
the  ideal,  241 
of  piano,   154 
of  piano  is  compound,  39 
of  string,  38 
Tone  color,  meaning  of,  156 
Tone  coloration  by  sound  board, 

168 
Tone-emission,  apparatus  of,  for 
piano,  153 
definition  of,  154 
Tonometer  of  Koenig,  19 
Tone  regulation,  see  Voicing 
Tools  for  player  work,  327 
for  regulating,  221 
care  of,  259 

for  tuning,  119,  123,  125 
for    voicing,    234,    237,    240, 
243 
Touch  in  piano  action,  137 
after  touch,  207 
control  of,  155,  156 
depth  of,  201 
regulation  on  grand,  201 
regulation  on  upright,  220 
Tracker-bar    of    player    piano, 

300,  302 
Tracking-device  of  player-piano, 

303 
Trapwork      in      piano      action 
(pedals),   139 
defects  in,  255 
Treadles  of  player  piano,  286 
Treble,  tuning  of,  127 
Tubes  in  player   piano,    leaky, 
324 
metal,  324 


Tubes — continued 
old  rubber,  324 
Tuning  of  piano,  basis  of,  34 
of  unisons,  98 
of  octaves,  101 
of  treble,  127 
solid,  120 

(see   also    Temperament,    Oc- 
tave, Unison,  etc.) 
Tuning-fork,    pitch    measuring 
instrument,  its  sound,  5 
vibrations  of,  6,  38 
Tuning  hammer,  tool   for  tun- 
ing, 119 
length  of,  121 
manipulation  of,  119 
position  of,  121 
Tuning-pin    in    piano    making, 
114,  118 
bending  of,  120 
turning  of,  120,  244 
sleeve  for,  244 
Tyndall,  Professor,  Acoustician, 
9 

U. 

Unison,  in  music,  20 
tuning  of,  98 

V. 

Vacuum,  in  pneiunatics,  defini- 
tion of,  272 
partial,  272 

in  reduced  pressure  chamber, 
273 
Valve,  in  player-piano  mechan- 
ism, 272 
of  motor,  315 


Index. 


341 


Valve — continued 
operation  of,  273 
pouch  of,  270,  273 
pouch  defective,  317 
primary,  299 
secondary,  299 
sticking  of,  313 
travel  of,  318 
Varnish  for  pianos,  149 

defects  and  remedies,  255 
Vent,  of  player  piano  mechan- 
ism, 269,  271,  297,  298, 
316,  318 
Ventral  segments,  in  acoustics, 

49 
Vibration,    in    acoustics,    com- 
plex, 41 
double,  15 

laws  of  frequency,  44 
semi,  15 
simple,  37 
simultaneous,  59 
Voicer,    in    piano    making,    his 
qualifications,  241 
as  critic,  241 
Voicing,     process     of     treating 
piano  hammers,  etc.,  59 
■process  of,  233 
crown  stitch,  241 
"the  dead  tone,"  240 
deep  stitches,  239 
filing,  234 
ironing,  240 


Voicing — continued 
needling,  236 
needle  holder,  237 
"picking  up,"  238 
problem  of,  232 
prior  condition  of  felt,  233 
sand  paper  file,  234 
smoothing,  234 
technique  of  filing,  235 

of  needling,  237 
trimming  the  crown,  239 

W. 

Wave-length  in  acoustics,  63 
Welding  for  plate  repairs,  251 
Wessell,  Nickel  &  Gross,  piano 
action  makers,   189,   199, 
210,  215 
Wilcox  &  White  Co.,  see  Ange- 

lus 
Wire  for  piano  strings,  57 
density  of,  58 
gauge  of,  179 
high  tension,  179 
Womum,  R.,  piano  maker,  184 
Wrest  plank  in  piano,  see  Piano 
defects  of,  247 

Z. 

Zahm,  Rev.  J.  A.,  Acoustician, 
82,  97,  footnotes 


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